In his 1993 book ‘Critical Incidents in Teaching’ Australian educator and author David Tripp makes the assertion “the great stress of teaching comes both from the number of decisions teachers have to make every minute and from the nature of the decisions they have to take” (Tripp, 1993, p.49). Clearly a teacher’s adeptness at decision making will be a factor in their teaching outcomes, reflective practice provides an opportunity for practitioners to stop, consider and evaluate some of the myriad of events that occur within the context of the classroom and appraise how the decisions they make impact. There are many forms of reflection teachers can engage in, such as logs, journals, portfolios or action research (Purcell, 2014). One form this evaluation can take is a critical incident study. At this point it is important to establish what is meant by the critical incident in this context. Tripp explains critical incidents are not things that exist that are awaiting discovery, critical incidents, like all data, are created by the way we consider what has happened (Tripp, 1993). The incident being outlined could have passed unnoticed in a lesson but by considering the incident critically we give it significance. Consideration can be given to the context in which it occurred and what we can learn from it, also we evaluate how the incident relates to the new curriculum being devised in Wales, spearheaded by Professor Graham Donald. Methodology A critical incident is in research terms a variant of a case study, “case studies have made a considerable contribution to the corpus of knowledge and practical wisdom about education” (Adelman et al, 1980, cited from Basey, 1999, pg. 23). Case studies differ from more scientific experiments as there is no rigid control of variables or standardised questioning, they are a more real-world, holistic, interpretive attempt to consider events. The value in case studies, like critical incident studies, lies not in what has happened but the in- depth analysis of the event (Basey, 1999). The incidents observed were obtained through non-participant observation. The observation sheet was used for taking notes and the ARC sheet was used for reflection. (Appendix C). A range of observation techniques which are typical to classroom research such as a sociogram: a graphic representation that maps relationships within a group, or a Vignette: a hypothetical story which allows the gathering of data in a less personal manner (Thomas, 2013, Barter and Reynold, 1999) or even participant observation could have been considered, however due to the observer’s lack of inexperience it was deemed that choosing an unfamiliar method of recording or being an active participant could distract from the focus of observing and recording. There are limitations to observation that are important to consider. We bring our cognitive biases to observation and it is reliant on the researcher’s interpretation (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007, Didau, 2016). Another important shortcoming is the Hawthorne effect, which refers to a change that occurs as a result of the study (Thomas, 2013) in an educational study this would manifest as the teacher or the pupils modifying their behaviour, because of the presence of the researcher in the classroom. Case studies are problematic as a form of research and we must be aware of the limitations of population validity when using them, any findings are not necessarily replicable and we cannot extrapolate from them to either the whole class or even broader (McAvoy and Brace, 2014). However, being aware of these shortcomings means we can consider them during our study. Value can be added to critical incidents by creating a critical incident file, Tripp recommends collating incidents, organised by themes, within the file we can record and seek to notice patterns and revisit incidents. The value of using a file is we can reveal our routines as well as recognise possible influences, considering how and why we do things in depth allows us to improve our practice (Tripp, 1993). This collation of data can help us start to make tentative generalisations. Another exciting way these case studies could be used in a valuable way is (X) advocates that for more education research to have value communities could be created that share their insights. BERA (2018) ethical guidelines state institutions and individuals have the right to anonymity and privacy, taking that into consideration we will not be identifying individuals or the school. The school in which observation took place is a community school for children aged from three to eleven years. The school is situated in a traditional ex-mining community in the Rhondda Valley. There is a high level of economic inactivity in the village and a high level of unemployment. The area can be described as predominantly disadvantaged. 21.5% of pupils are eligible for FSM, this is in comparison to a national average of 16.9% (PLASC) There will be approximately 425 pupils on roll in September 2019 organised into 14 classes. The school’s intake reflects a full range of ability. 19.4% pupils were identified as having additional learning needs which is slightly below the national average of 22%. Currently 3 pupils have statements of SEN although 1 more is going through the process. (Appendix A) On the day of the observation the school was celebrating the European Day of Languages. The foundation phase pupils were to carousel around classrooms, in each a lesson about a designated country would take place. Two year 2 groups and one year 1 group were rotating around three classrooms, the countries being looked at were Italy, Spain and Germany. The teacher in the classroom was an NQT supply teacher who taught within the school’s foundation phase regularly. The Observed Incident The children had arrived at school and at registration had learnt about the structure of the day. They would be learning about Spanish culture and language in this classroom. The incident in question happened as the children were watching a short Sesame Street video about flamenco dancing (Appendix B). One of the characters in the video is going to try the dancing and before trying exclaims “I don’t think I can do that!” he struggles, but after practicing he becomes more confident. At this point the teacher stopped the video and said to a girl “don’t you think this really ties into what we were speaking about last week.” Drawing from Tripp who believed it important we deliberately seek out the views of other participants (Tripp, 1993). I spoke to the teacher to ascertain details of the previous incident. The teacher advised that she had noticed many of the class, particularly the boys, seemed to have very fixed mindsets around what they could do, so she had held delivered a lesson specifically about positive mindsets and perseverance. In 2015 a report by Professor Graham Donaldson called Successful Futures was published, after performing extensive research into education, pedagogy and learning, which took place mainly in Welsh schools but also Internationally, Professor Donaldson set out a vision for what students in Wales education should encompass. Within it there are four clear core purposes that synthesise the areas education should focus on building in children. (Donaldson, 2015). The four purposes were physically visible in the classroom (see fig. 1) and it felt as though the lesson directly linked to them. Figure 1: 4 Purposes display in classroom. Children were celebrating the European Languages day which directly links to one of the purposes: ethical informed citizens. Donaldson proposes children be taught about cultures and the world so they can be valuable members in a diverse society. Focusing on positive mindsets contributes to the remaining three purposes: to be ambitious capable learners, enterprising creative contributors and healthy confident individuals. Historically education was focused on a workforce who would go into jobs that required rote performance and little cognitive functioning (Bandura, 1997), however the new curriculum wishes to equip young people with the skills they need for life in an increasingly complex and changing world. (Donaldson, 2015) The teacher had previously recognised the fixed mindsets the children held would hinder their ability to succeed, in these aims and then whilst watching the video she recognised the link between what she had taught previously and adroitly used the video as an opportunity to have the children see an authentic example that reinforced her previous teaching. Literature Review It soon became apparent that there was a historical significance in the fact positive mindset was being taught in a school which describes itself as predominantly disadvantaged. (Appendix A). In France in 1904 Alfred Binet designed the first test which attempted to measure intelligence, his aim was to help identify children in the education system who needed additional help (Byford, Mcavoy and Banyard, 2014), he was critical of the measurement insisting it only gave us a snapshot of attainment (Smyth and Wrigley, 2013). His method of measuring intellect was soon misused for political means across the world. Where lower class children performed less well it was explained that the differences were innate rather than environmental (Arshad, Wrigley and Pratt, 2012). Numerous theories such as language deficiencies among the working classes, stigmatization of local dialects and even that there existed a restricted code in language used by the working classes followed. Although these theories have predominantly been discredited; erroneous assumptions about class and ability persist within education (Arshad, Wrigley and Pratt 2012, Smyth and Wrigley, 2013). Aspiration being encouraged in a disadvantaged area is evidence that although the discussion around environment and heritability has not been settled, disadvantaged children’s futures are not dismissed with the same ease they once were. By the beginning of the 20th century, psychology had been focused on trying to examine mental events, Behaviourists such as John Watson and B. F. Skinner believed psychology should become more scientific and that the focus should move away from subjective study of the mind, to behaviour which was observable (Brace and Byford, 2010, Child 1973). Behaviourists focused their study on stimulus and response and B. F. Skinner created the Skinner Box which allowed psychologists to control the environment of the animal they were studying (Brace and Byford, 2010, Child, 1973). John Watson is infamous for his declarations that all humans are like a blank slate and environment alone determines their destiny. Critics of early behaviourism felt it was too simplistic to believe nature plays no role in development, they believed animal behaviour could not be used to make judgements on the behaviour of humans, and that the behaviourists belief in a lack of free will was problematic (Aubrey and Riley, 2016, Hendrick, 2016, Child, 1973). The legacy of behaviourism is still extremely visible in the modern classroom. Reinforcement is used widely to control behaviour, however, even something as simple as reinforcement can be applied more effectively once we understand the theory behind it: positive reinforcement is more effective than negative, reinforcement is more effective if it occurs directly after an event, and intrinsic reinforcement is better than extrinsic, it was more advantageous to have children be enthused by learning and then the positive reinforcement comes from within themselves (Aubrey and Riley 2016). Albert Bandura was a Behaviourist who wished for behaviourism to move away from being considered as authoritarian, he stressed ‘reinforcement techniques’ were for ‘human betterment’ not ‘social control’ (Bandura, 1974, cited from Hendrick, 2016). Bandura believed much of our behaviour is learned from environment by observing and modelling, consequently, reinforcement could happen by seeing reinforcement happening to others (Davenport, 1991). In 1983 he published a paper on self-efficacy and went on to write and research extensively on the subject. Perceived self-efficacy is a belief that the holder can have an influence on the outcomes in their own lives. When people have high levels of self- efficacy it can lead to greater achievement and wellbeing. The four ways he proposes self-efficacy can be built are mastery experiences, social persuasion, modelling and for people to learn to interpret physiological changes in a more positive and productive way (Bandura 1994). Bandura believed educations purpose was to instil in young people the capability to educate themselves (Bandura, 1997). During the incident the teacher was highlighting an example of how a positive attitude could lead to success. The fact that the children were being taught thinking strategies is part of a movement towards education becoming more holistic, Donaldson bringing wellbeing into the curriculum is in line with the United Nations (1989) Convention on the rights of the child which states: every child has a right to an education that encompasses health and wellbeing. Donaldson’s belief is that for children to thrive they must have physical and mental wellbeing. (Donaldson, 2015) Building self-efficacy in pupils would be looking after their wellbeing. Bandura also outlines the importance on the perceived self-efficacy of teachers, teachers who believe they have high levels of instructional efficacy are more effective. Another consideration for teachers is the effects of differentiation on children’s levels of perceived self-efficacy, Bandura describes how children naturally compare themselves and therefore being grouped by ability can be harmful to their sense of self efficacy (Bandura, 1997). John Hattie undertook a meta-analysis of over 800 studies in his book Visible Learning (2012). Meta analyses are referred to often in this study, they are research which synthesizes and compares existing studies, one strength of this approach is small studies can have more value when combined with numerous other studies, furthermore, there is simply more data to draw conclusions from, however, the studies may not be looking at exactly the same issues, therefore it can be difficult to decide which studies can be used, also poorly designed studies are combined with higher quality ones (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007). From the meta-analysis Hattie argues for the transformational power of mindsets and considers one of the important roles of teachers as recognising their own mindsets, this supports Bandura’s assertion self-efficacy can be grown through modelling. Hattie also outlines how pupils bring their self-efficacy to the classroom and that for learning to happen students must believe learning can happen (Hattie, 2012). Hattie’s work reinforces the idea that the teacher was right to recognise that the lacking positive mindset in the children could hinder their learning. More recently Carol Dweck’s work has covered similar themes and has been popular amongst educators. Dweck is also a social psychologist interested in self-conceptions people hold and how they can affect their lives. In her bestselling book Mindset, two mindsets are identified, fixed mindset and growth mindset, Dweck believes which we ascribe to has a profound effect on our lives, people with a fixed mindset see their intelligence as unchangeable, whereas people with a growth mindset believe hard work can result in improvement (Dweck, 2012). Carol Dweck’s theories have led to a programme called Brainology, which centres around the idea of teaching children to think of their brains as a muscle which can be fed and grown (Pound, 2009). There are many criticisms of Dweck, a recent double meta-analyses looked at the effects of growth mindset on academic achievement and the effects mindset interventions had, both showed a negligible improvement, though interestingly there was a more pronounced improvement in scores of children who came from disadvantaged backgrounds (Sisk et al, 2018). The area the school is in was predominantly disadvantaged and although there has been a focus on an aspiration deficit paying a role in the attainment gap, evidence does not support lower levels of aspiration in disadvantaged areas (Harrison and Waller, 2018). Often a judgement of low aspiration is made by individuals who may not understand that to some disadvantaged people aspiration may not exist because aspirations depend on opportunity, not personal optimism (Arshad, Wrigley and Pratt, 2012, Harrison and Waller, 2018). Lacking aspiration or poor mindsets are sometimes used as a method to shift the blame for the attainment gap onto the disadvantaged (Didau, 2014), in this sense it is similar to the arguments that were made earlier in history that somehow the attainment gap was excusable. Socio-economic status is the best predictor for educational attainment (Menzies, 2013) and in May this year the BBC reported that Wales is the only UK country where poverty is on the rise, on average 29.3% of children live in poverty (Pollock, 2019). In his report Donaldson says good teaching requires an understanding of the social and psychological factors that influence learning (2015). As such teachers in Wales have a responsibility to consider social inclusivity. On average disadvantaged pupils perform less well than their more well-off counterparts, they start education with lower levels of attainment in assessment and the gap grows throughout (Crenna-Jennings, 2018). Teachers in Wales must reflect on how they can ameliorate this problem. One consideration is whether teachers are contributing to what the then shadow secretary of Education for the U.K. Nicki Morgan described as “a soft bigotry of low expectations” (Cassidy, 2015) her concern was based on a report for Civitas by Robert Peal called Progressively Worse (2014). Peal considers how a pervasive attitude that children from disadvantaged backgrounds are destined for lower achievement can cause teachers to at best set work that is not challenging enough and at worst believe they do not have agency to improve the lives of the children in their classroom. This view is supported in ‘Junior School’ a study by Mortimore et al in 1988, one of the findings was higher expectations and assessments for the children of non-manual workers as opposed to manual. (West and Pennell 2005). There is evidence that teachers may be contributing to the attainment gap because of their prejudices. (West and Pennell 2005, Peal 2014) Peal outlines many ways we should not teach disadvantaged children, but he also draws our attention to the fact great teaching can help narrow the attainment gap. (Peal, 2014). Doug Lemov is a former teacher who is now the managing director of Uncommon Schools, an organisation that focuses on how great teaching improves achievement in disadvantaged areas. He identified great teachers by looking at schools that were in disadvantaged areas but were achieving results that were comparable to more affluent areas, he then looked for commonalities in teaching practice within these schools. The recommendations he mirror both Donaldson and Hattie’s findings. They give a blueprint for a classroom environment that fosters success for all. A classroom where mastery is fostered and learning is assessed and acted on, one in which there is a positive academic ethos and classroom culture; high expectations for all and an environment where mistakes are not feared. Where questioning, writing and discussion are used to encourage rigour and engagement. (Lemov 2015) There are a lot of commonalities with good teaching practices and positive mindsets are usually encouraged through role modelling and mastery tasks as oppose to explicit teaching. The correct teaching environment can foster self-efficacy and growth mindset without it needing to be taught. Evaluation In my essay I use the term FSM in the context in which it often is used: as synonymous for disadvantaged. The average free school meals figure in Wales is 16.9%, however 30% of children in Wales are assumed to be living in poverty. (PLASC) Britain is a country where 4 million people in work are also living in poverty (Partington 2018) yet parents who receive working tax credits are unable to claim FSM. This is just one of a variety of reasons FSM figures being used to identify children as disadvantaged is problematic, whilst it is important to remember we may read or discuss around groups and populations, as teachers in the classroom we are dealing with individuals not averages (Peal 2014, Smyth and Wrigley 2013). After observing the incident, I instinctively felt that teaching mindset in a disadvantaged area was a positive practice. Over the course of the work my initial feeling has been challenged and I have had a chance to examine my own prejudice. I considered parental aspiration in relation to my own life as someone who has been relatively privileged, having not considered the effect opportunities have on aspiration (Arshad, Wrigley and Pratt, 2012, Harrison and Waller, 2018). The evidence shows us that low aspiration is not prevalent among disadvantaged parents (Harrison and Waller 2018), but the real difficulty is there is a lack of understanding about how children can reach their potential. (Smyth and Wrigley 2013). To improve the life chances of students there is more value in schools helping signpost opportunities for young people (Crenna-Jennings, 2018, Smyth and Wrigley, 2013). Also something to consider is encouraging people to leave communities and be socially mobile can also be problematic, it is important that whilst we encourage aspiration, we do not cast a shadow of failure over those who have not had opportunities. (Goodhart, 2017). The home learning environment is one of the factors in the attainment gap (Crenna-Jennings, 2018) and it is important as a teacher to have positive relationships with parents. This can only exist if I am empathetic and non-judgemental, this critical incident has reminded me of the importance of empathy when dealing with parents. Socially disadvantaged pupils will undoubtedly be members of my classroom and I need to always remember to not make any assumptions. Good teaching is never considering the low academic attainment of certain pupils as acceptable, never lowering expectations for what disadvantaged pupils can achieve before they have even entered the classroom (Peal, 2014), being aware of how bias can creep into differentiation and assessment (Mortimore et al, 1988, cited from West and Pennell, 2005) and the limitations of a simplification of the curriculum. (Didau, 2016) The evidence shows high expectations are linked to high achievement amongst all students (Lemov, 2015, Mundy and Leko 2015) so it is imperative teachers do not lower their expectations for students or excuse lower achievement as it may become a self-fulfilling prophecy. (West and Pennell, 2005) There is evidence in the value of self-efficacy or a growth mindset, however the evidence for explicitly teaching it seems to be unclear, and as such programmes such as Brainology, on which the American government has spent millions of dollars introducing into the classroom should be scrutinised (Sisk et al 2018). Without strong supporting evidence for interventions we should be wary of introducing them into the classroom. Didau laments Dweck’s mindsets may just become another ‘meta-belief that warps and distorts as it becomes increasingly and uncritically consumed.’ (Didau, 2014, pg. 311) and Dweck herself is critical of how a ‘false growth mindset’ has appeared as her theories have been misunderstood (Gross-Loh, 2016). Looking at this critical incident has given me a chance to reflect on how imperative it is to think critically about strategies we adopt in the classroom, unless we understand the theory behind a practice, we are unlikely to extract the full benefit. It is important as a teacher to not fall into the trap of adopting strategies we see other teacher using without understanding the expertise. (Didau 2016) Wellbeing is a determinant in the attainment gap (Crenna-Jennings 2018) and mindfulness and growth mindsets seem to be a popular way for schools to incorporate wellbeing into the curriculum, however Donaldson advocates that learning contexts be authentic (Donaldson, 2015). Some make the argument that until politics changes and childhood poverty is eradicated the attainment gap cannot be closed (Wrigley, 2012) however I would not be entering teaching if I did not believe in my ability to be an agent for change, throughout my research I have come to the conclusion the most effective way to raise wellbeing and hopefully help close the attainment gap is creating the correct learning environment and encourage positive mindset and self-efficacy through modelling and experiences. Conclusion A requirement of the professional teaching standards is for teachers to constantly refine their practice so they can secure the best outcomes for learners. (Welsh Government 2018) It is difficult to imagine how a teacher could not partake in reflective practice as the nature of the job is not a constant: classes change and with them come new challenges, also there is constantly new and exciting literature and research in the field of child development, pedagogy and education. I can see the value of creating a critical incident file while teaching, particularly when I am reflecting on my own practice and not restricted by writing for an essay. A challenge I found was staying focused on specific areas rather than allowing my enquiry to lead me, it is clearly a useful way to extend knowledge in subject areas you may not have researched otherwise. The observation allowed me to focus on an incident that centred around the teaching of something that is widely accepted and instinctively felt right to me, however once I gave the incident more consideration it helped me understand the importance of thinking about what we teach and how resources are spent as well as consider how some of my opinions were rooted in patrronising misconceptions. One of the struggles I found was that for every study I find there seems to be a study to contradict, evidence seemingly can be used to support any idea (Didau 2016), however by considering a simple incident in the class I have explored numerous arguments about mindsets, aspiration, wellbeing and disadvantage, there are no definitive answers around the subjects however I feel better equipped at tackling them in my classroom being aware of the variety of opinions that exist, also I have learnt about self-efficacy, positive reinforcement and mindsets and effective ways to utilise them personally and within the classroom.