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							<p>Data is commonly presented in the form of tables, charts or graphs. If you plan to present your data in this way you must be aware of standard conventions and best practices. Although different fields of research have different accepted norms for presenting data (which you will usually learn from subject-specific textbooks), there are some general rules that every researcher is expected to follow.</p>
							
							<h3>The proper use of tables, charts and graphs</h3>
							
							<p>Tables, charts and graphs should be used to accurately present what you discovered. They should not be used to sell or hype your research, or cover up any weaknesses in your findings. The most common irresponsible practices associated with tabular and graphic presentations can be traced back to either carelessness or violations of the fundamental virtues of honesty, accuracy and transparency.</p>
							
							<instructional-text><p>Access the different types of figures through the main menu, clicking on the red markers attached to each figure to read more about the factors that you should keep in mind when preparing tables, charts and graphs.</p></instructional-text>
							<instructional-text-accessible><p>Continue on for a description of the factors that you should keep in mind when preparing tables, charts and graphs.</p></instructional-text-accessible>
							
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									<action-link goto-panel="1"><h3>Tables</h3></action-link>
									<action-link goto-panel="2"><h3>Charts</h3></action-link>
									<action-link goto-panel="3"><h3>Graphs</h3></action-link>
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										<labelled-graphic-hotspot location="619,123" variant="west" placement="left" heading="Honesty" content="It is crucial that researchers honestly present their findings in tables, graphs and charts. This requires researchers to be transparent in reporting what their research concluded. Dishonesty is among the most common reasons why graphic presentations have to be corrected or retracted."></labelled-graphic-hotspot>
										<labelled-graphic-hotspot location="619,289" variant="west" placement="left" heading="Diligence" content="Diligence in presenting results means taking care to present accurate results. It is crucial to avoid careless mistakes that could result in numbers being inaccurately reported or mixed up."></labelled-graphic-hotspot>
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										<labelled-graphic-hotspot location="633,20" variant="west" placement="left" heading="Title" content="The title of a chart, table or graph should serve as a brief description of the information being conveyed. It is important that titles are accurate and representative, as some researchers carelessly mistitle their graphics or even deliberately use misleading titles to enhance their alleged findings."></labelled-graphic-hotspot>
										<labelled-graphic-hotspot location="690,320"  placement="left" heading="Axis scale" content="Charts and graphs plot information along two axes, normally referred to as 'x' and 'y'. By changing the scale or range covered in an axis, minor variations that arise over the course of a project can be made to appear more significant. For example, if all the responses on a 10-point survey scale were either 8 or 9, the variation in responses could be made more dramatic by reducing the response axis from 0&ndash;10 to 8&ndash;10. Since readers might not notice the shortened axis, it is important to explain and justify changes such as this to avoid confusing or misleading your readers."></labelled-graphic-hotspot>
										<labelled-graphic-hotspot location="590,138" variant="west" placement="left" heading="Format" content="'Format' refers to the way in which the information is presented. Improper presentation practices include: hyping significance by adding inappropriate decimal points; failing to add error bars when they are important; and simply not adding a decimal point when reporting percentages."></labelled-graphic-hotspot>
										<p class="text-note"><strong>Source:</strong> Harper <em>et al.</em> (2018)</p>
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										<labelled-graphic-hotspot location="629,320"  placement="left" heading="Range" content="Deciding when to end a graph is important. In this case, the researchers could have ended their graph prior to 2010 to avoid showing the steep decline in numbers. This would have created the false impression that the number of retractions is increasing year-on-year; this example, therefore, emphasises the importance of using the full range to give a complete picture of the situation."></labelled-graphic-hotspot>
										<labelled-graphic-hotspot location="450,172"  placement="left" heading="Trend" content="In this case, the authors could have added trend lines to help readers interpret the data. This would imply a rate of change that the sample size and variation in this study would probably not support.  The researchers have, therefore, let readers interpret the graph rather than implying that they know more than they do."></labelled-graphic-hotspot>
										<p class="text-note"><strong>Source:</strong> Steen, Casadevall and Fang (2013)</p>
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								<h4>Tables</h4>
								<p>Some factors to consider when preparing tables are:</p>
								<p><strong>Honesty:</strong> It is crucial that researchers honestly present their findings in tables, graphs and charts. This requires researchers to be transparent in reporting what their research concluded. Dishonesty is among the most common reasons why graphic presentations have to be corrected or retracted.</p>
								<p><strong>Diligence:</strong> Diligence in presenting results means taking care to present accurate results. It is crucial to avoid careless mistakes that could result in numbers being inaccurately reported or mixed up.</p>
								<hr>
								<h4>Charts</h4>
								<p>Some factors to consider when preparing charts are:</p>
								<p><strong>Title:</strong> The title of a chart, table or graph should serve as a brief description of the information being conveyed. It is important that titles are accurate and representative, as some researchers carelessly mistitle their graphics or even deliberately use misleading titles to enhance their alleged findings.</p>
								<p><strong>Axis scale:</strong> Charts and graphs plot information along two axes, normally referred to as 'x' and 'y'. By changing the scale or range covered in an axis, minor variations that arise over the course of a project can be made to appear more significant. For example, if all the responses on a 10-point survey scale were either 8 or 9, the variation in responses could be made more dramatic by reducing the response axis from 0&ndash;10 to 8&ndash;10. Since readers might not notice the shortened axis, it is important to explain and justify changes such as this to avoid confusing or misleading your readers.</p>
								<p><strong>Format:</strong> 'Format' refers to the way in which the information is presented. Improper presentation practices include: hyping significance by adding inappropriate decimal points; failing to add error bars when they are important; and simply not adding a decimal point when reporting percentages.</p>
								<hr>
								<h4>Graphs</h4>
								<p>Some factors to consider when preparing graphs are:</p>
								<p><strong>Range:</strong> Deciding when to end a graph is important. In this case, the researchers could have ended their graph prior to 2010 to avoid showing the steep decline in numbers. This would have created the false impression that the number of retractions is increasing year-on-year; this example, therefore, emphasises the importance of using the full range to give a complete picture of the situation.</p>
								<p><strong>Trends:</strong> In this case, the authors could have added trend lines to help readers interpret the data. This would imply a rate of change that the sample size and variation in this study would probably not support. The researchers have, therefore, let readers interpret the graph rather than implying that they know more than they do.</p>
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							<p>It is your responsibility when presenting information to make choices that will give your reader the most honest and accurate picture of your discovery. The way you present your results should convey what you actually found, not what you wish you had found. You should also ensure that you have received appropriate training because using figures and tables to present results is not always as straightforward as it may seem.</p>
							
							<h3>Summary</h3>
							
							<p>When you draw up and present tables, graphs and charts, you should ask yourself the following questions:</p>
							
							<ul>
								<li>Does the presentation accurately represent your findings?</li>
								<li>Has all relevant information been included, not just the information you want others to know about?</li>
								<li>Will an average reader come away with an accurate understanding of the information?</li>
							</ul>
							
							<p>In short, tables, graphs and charts should be used to enable others to understand and question your findings.</p>
							
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