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							<p>Research involving human participants is one of the few areas of research that follows agreed, largely global, guidelines. The Declaration of Helsinki is the most well-known of these, and is based on the earlier Nuremberg Code, which was itself developed following the Second World War and revelations of Nazi research abuses in concentration camps. UNESCO's Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights is also influential.</p>

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											<li><a href="https://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/nuremberg.pdf" target="_blank">The Nuremberg Code</a></li>
											<li><a href="http://www.who.int/bulletin/archives/79%284%29373.pdf" target="_blank">Declaration of Helsinki</a></li>
											<li><a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/bioethics/bioethics-and-human-rights/" target="_blank">Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights</a></li>
											<li><a href="https://www.bps.org.uk/sites/www.bps.org.uk/files/Policy/Policy%20-%20Files/BPS%20Code%20of%20Ethics%20and%20Conduct%20%28Updated%20July%202018%29.pdf" target="_blank">British Psychological Society's Code of Ethics and Conduct</a></li>
											<li><a href="https://esrc.ukri.org/files/funding/guidance-for-applicants/esrc-framework-for-research-ethics-2015/" target="_blank">ESRC's Framework for Research Ethics</a></li>
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							<p>If you plan to study humans or engage human participants in your research, you should be aware of the Declaration of Helsinki along with any related guidelines that have subsequently been produced in your specific field of research (e.g. the British Psychological Association's Code of Ethics and Conduct, or the Economic and Social Research Council's (ESRC's) Framework for Research Ethics).</p>

							<h3>Basic principles</h3>

							<p>Although there is some variation in how issues are addressed and dealt with in different fields or kinds of research, there are four principles that are most commonly referred to when evaluating research (Beauchamp and Childress, 2013).</p>

							<instructional-text><p>Click on each term to learn more about the basic principles that underpin research involving human participants.</p></instructional-text>

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							<accessible-text><p>Continue on to learn more about the basic principles that underpin research involving human participants.</p></accessible-text>

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								<p><text-label content="<h4>Participation in research should be voluntary</h4>Potential participants should be given enough information to make an informed choice as to whether they want to participate in the research. Keep in mind that your professional status or a particular research situation could influence the decisions participants make. Participants should also always be given the option to withdraw from the research. "placement="top">Autonomy</text-label></p>
								<p><text-label content="<h4>Risks to individuals should be minimised</h4>If your research poses any level of risk or potential harm, look for ways to reduce this. Some risks are unavoidable, but they should only be accepted if there are no other options. Studies should always be designed and conducted in a way that minimises potential harms." placement="top">Non-maleficence</text-label></p>
								<p><text-label content="<h4>Benefits from the research should outweigh any risks</h4>Overall, the benefits of the research (either to the participant or more generally) should outweigh the risks." placement="top">Beneficence</text-label></p>
								<p><text-label content="<h4>Benefits and risks should be fairly distributed across populations</h4>This covers a number of related issues: <ul><li>Within studies, the distribution of risks and benefits should be equitable (i.e. one participant or group of participants should not benefit while others are put at risk &ndash; this is sometimes referred to as 'equipoise')</li><li>Within populations, research participants should stand a reasonable chance of benefiting from the outcomes of the research</li><li>Across populations, risky research should not be conducted with more vulnerable populations (e.g. in a developing country) if the main benefits are to be realised in a different population.</li></ul>" placement="top">Justice</text-label></p>
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								<h4>Autonomy</h4>
								<p><strong>Participation in research should be voluntary</strong></p>
								<p>Potential participants should be given enough information to make an informed choice as to whether they want to participate in the research. Keep in mind that your professional status or a particular research situation could influence the decisions participants make. Participants should also always be given the option to withdraw from the research. )</p>
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								<h4>Non-maleficence</h4>
								<p><strong>Risks to individuals should be minimised</strong></p>
								<p>If your research poses any level of risk or potential harm, look for ways to reduce this. Some risks are unavoidable, but they should only be accepted if there are no other options. Studies should always be designed and conducted in a way that minimises potential harms.)</p>
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								<h4>Beneficence</h4>
								<p><strong>Benefits from the research should outweigh any risks</strong></p>
								<p>Overall, the benefits of the research (either to the participant or more generally) should outweigh the risks.)</p>
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								<h4>Justice</h4>
								<p><strong>Benefits and risks should be fairly distributed across populations</strong></p>
								<p>This covers a number of related issues:</p>
								<ul>
									<li>Within studies, the distribution of risks and benefits should be equitable (i.e. one participant or group of participants should not benefit while others are put at risk &ndash; this is sometimes referred to as 'equipoise')</li>
									<li>Within populations, research participants should stand a reasonable chance of benefiting from the outcomes of the research</li>
									<li>Across populations, risky research should not be conducted with more vulnerable populations (e.g. in a developing country) if the main benefits are to be realised in a different population.</li>
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							<p>At a minimum, all research involving human participants should address these basic principles.</p>

							<h3>Summary</h3>

							<p>The global research community has established codes and basic principles to protect human research participants. If you study humans, or involve human participants in your research, you are expected to be aware of relevant guidance, seek out relevant support, and live up to the standards they establish.</p>

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