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							<p>Copyright holders have the right to own and control copies of their creative work. Most countries have their own copyright laws. However, there are two agreements that govern international recognition of copyrights: the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention (see the "Useful links" pod for links to these documents).</p>

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								<pod-heading>Useful links</pod-heading> <!-- pod title -->
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								<pod-modal-heading>Useful links</pod-modal-heading>
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										<p><a href="http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/index.html" target="_blank">Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works</a></p>
										<p><a href="http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15381&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html" target="_blank">Universal Copyright Convention, with Appendix Declaration Relating to Articles XVII and Resolution Concerning Article XI</a></p>
										<p><a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/intellectual-property-office" target="_blank">UK Intellectual Property Office</a></p>
										<p><a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/exceptions-to-copyright" target="_blank">UK Intellectual Property Office &ndash; Exceptions to Copyright</a></p>
										<p><a href="https://creativecommons.org/" target="_blank">The Creative Commons</a></p>
										<p><a href="https://www.bl.uk/business-and-ip-centre/articles/fair-use-copyright-explained" target="_blank">British Library &ndash; Fair Use Copyright Explained</a></p>
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							<p>Copyright is particularly important for researchers in literature, the arts, music, architecture, computer sciences and other 'creative' fields, and is the primary way in which individuals in these fields protect and benefit from their work. For example, it protects creative works by granting their creator the right to control the distribution and use of works such as:</p>
						
							<ul>
								<li>Literary, musical and artistic productions</li>
								<li>Films, videos, photographs</li>
								<li>Software codes</li>
								<li>Architectural (and other) drawings and plans.</li>
							</ul>
							
							<p>However, copyright is broadly relevant to all areas of research that rely on publication. Papers, articles and book are always copyrighted in some way (n.b. even 'open access' agreements represent a copyright arrangement), while any researcher who quotes or uses material published by someone else must know when and how to respect copyright permissions.</p>
							
							<h3>Creating copyright</h3>
							
							<p>A copyright is precisely what the term implies: a right to a copy. When you draft a paper, you own the right to use that paper in the form it was created. However, not everything you write can be protected by copyright. Generally speaking, you must meet some minimum conditions to establish copyright.</p>
							
							<instructional-text activity-element="related-concepts"><p>Click on each outer circle to learn about what is required for something to be copyrighted.</p></instructional-text>
							<instructional-text-mobile activity-element="related-concepts"><p>Click on each tab to learn about what is required for something to be copyrighted.</p></instructional-text-mobile>
							<accessible-text><p>Continue on to learn about what is required for something to be copyrighted.</p></accessible-text>

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								<central-concept><node-heading>Criteria for copyright</node-heading></central-concept>
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									<concept-node>
										<node-heading>Creative</node-heading>
										<node-content>
											<p>To claim copyright, there must be some evidence of creativity. The quality of the creative product is not important, but the product cannot consist exclusively of facts or information that anyone could access and record. For example:</p>
											<ul>
												<li>Historical dates cannot be copyrighted; however, a particular interpretation of what happened on a historical date can be proposed in an article and copyrighted</li>
												<li>Publically available factual information, such as lists of names and addresses, cannot be copyrighted.</li>
											</ul>
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										<node-heading>Original</node-heading>
										<node-content>
											<p>Copyrighted work must be original, and should be the product of the researcher's own work.</p>
											<p>In line with this need for the work to be original, you cannot:</p>
											<ul>
												<li>Copyright something created by someone else</li>
												<li>Re-copyright something you had previously copyrighted to extend the period of protection.</li>
											</ul>
										</node-content>
									</concept-node>
									<concept-node>
										<node-heading>Physically recorded</node-heading>
										<node-content>
											<p>For a creative work to qualify for copyright, it must be fixed in some tangible way (i.e. it must be physically recorded).</p>
											<p>In research, the most common form of physical record is the published research article; however, research results can be recorded in many ways. An idea proposed during a discussion at a professional meeting could qualify for copyright, but only if the researcher expressing the idea had it recorded in some way (as an abstract in the programme, or as a paper/audio/video recording of the session).</p>
											<p>If you want to use copyright to protect your creative work, you must, in some way, create a physical expression or copy of that work. If you ever need to make case for ownership, this may also be more robust if the physical copy is dated. To be certain that you get the protection you want, you should check with someone who is familiar with the copyright laws that apply to your work.</p>
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								<h4>Creative</h4>
								<p>To claim copyright, there must be some evidence of creativity. The quality of the creative product is not important, but the product cannot consist exclusively of facts or information that anyone could access and record. For example:</p>
								<ul>
									<li>Historical dates cannot be copyrighted; however, a particular interpretation of what happened on a historical date can be proposed in an article and copyrighted</li>
									<li>Publically available factual information, such as lists of names and addresses, cannot be copyrighted.</li>
								</ul>
								<hr>
								<h4>Original</h4>
								<p>Copyrighted work must be original, and should be the product of the researcher's own work.</p>
								<ul>
									<li>Copyright something created by someone else</li>
									<li>Re-copyright something you had previously copyrighted to extend the period of protection.</li>
								</ul>
								<hr>
								<h4>Physically recorded</h4>
								<p>For a creative work to qualify for copyright, it must be fixed in some tangible way (i.e. it must be physically recorded).</p>
								<p>In research, the most common form of physical record is the published research article; however, research results can be recorded in many ways. An idea proposed during a discussion at a professional meeting could qualify for copyright, but only if the researcher expressing the idea had it recorded in some way (as an abstract in the programme, or as a paper/audio/video recording of the session).</p>
								<p>If you want to use copyright to protect your creative work, you must, in some way, create a physical expression or copy of that work. If you ever need to make case for ownership, this may also be more robust if the physical copy is dated. To be certain that you get the protection you want, you should check with someone who is familiar with the copyright laws that apply to your work.</p>
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							<p>Once you have physically created or recorded your copy, your copyright will have been established.</p>
							
							<h3>Protecting and sharing copyright</h3>
							
							<interactive-text><p>Once copyright has been established, protecting and sharing copyright can be complicated. Some of the dilemmas you could face are illustrated below.</p></interactive-text>
							<accessible-text><p>Once copyright has been established, protecting and sharing copyright can be complicated. Some of the dilemmas you could face are illustrated here.</p></accessible-text>
							
							<instructional-text><p>Click on each person to read about various copyright-related dilemmas, as well as our advice on how they can best be approached.</p></instructional-text>
							<accessible-text><p>Continue on to learn about various copyright-related dilemmas, as well as our advice on how they can best be approached.</p></accessible-text>
							
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								<opinion name="Clash between journal and funder" img-src="../images/activity_images/course_specific/inp_1_20_img1.png" img-alt="Alt">
									<p><em>"My journal wants to own my copyright; my funder requires open-access publication. What should I do?"</em></p>
									<p><strong>Advice:</strong> Most journals will now work with authors to find a way to meet their funders' open-access publication requirements; if you find yourself facing this sort of dilemma, you should be able to ask your journal for advice.</p>
								</opinion>
								<opinion name="Researchers wish to retain copyright" img-src="../images/activity_images/course_specific/inp_1_20_img2.png" img-alt="Alt">
									<p><em>"My colleagues and I would like to contribute an article to the special edition of this journal but we want to retain control over the copyright. What should we do?"</em></p>
									<p><strong>Advice:</strong> In this situation, the researchers should speak with the editor of the special edition to discover their options for retaining control of the copyright.</p>
								</opinion>
								<opinion name="Concerns over how to prove copyright" img-src="../images/activity_images/course_specific/inp_1_20_img3.png" img-alt="Alt">
									<p><em>"I am worried that once I publicise this creative work it is going to be exploited by others. If I must go to court to protect my copyright, is there anything I can do to prove that I do, in fact, own the copyright?"</em></p>
									<p><strong>Advice:</strong> If your country supports copyright registration, there are various ways in which you can demonstrate your ownership of the relevant copyright (see the "Useful links" pod for further information).</p>
								</opinion>
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								<h4>Clash between journal and funder</h4>
								<p><em>"My journal wants to own my copyright; my funder requires open-access publication. What should I do?"</em></p>
								<p><strong>Advice: </strong>Most journals will now work with authors to find a way to meet their funders' open-access publication requirements; if you find yourself facing this sort of dilemma, you should be able to ask your journal for advice.</p>
								<hr>
								<h4>Researchers wish to retain copyright</h4>
								<p><em>"My colleagues and I would like to contribute an article to the special edition of this journal but we want to retain control over the copyright. What should we do?"</em></p>
								<p><strong>Advice: </strong>In this situation, the researchers should speak with the editor of the special edition to discover their options for retaining control of the copyright.</p>
								<hr>
								<h4>Concerns over how to prove copyright</h4>
								<p><em>"I am worried that once I publicise this creative work it is going to be exploited by others. If I must go to court to protect my copyright, is there anything I can do to prove that I do, in fact, own the copyright?"</em></p>
								<p><strong>Advice: </strong>If your country supports copyright registration, there are various ways in which you can demonstrate your ownership of the relevant copyright (see the "Useful links" pod for further information).</p>
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							<p>To help researchers resolve these sorts of dilemmas, almost all institutions and companies have copyright or IP experts that can provide advice. They can advise researchers on different ways of protecting their work.</p>
							
							<h3>Copyright limitations</h3>
							
							<p>There are limits to copyrights that you need to keep in mind if you want to rely on copyright to protect your intellectual property.</p>
							
							<instructional-text><p>Click the tabs for more information on the limitations that apply to copyright.</p></instructional-text>
							<accessible-text><p>Continue on for more information on the limitations that apply to copyright.</p></accessible-text>
							
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									<tab-heading><p>Time</p></tab-heading>
									<tab-content><p>Copyrights are not granted forever. They generally last from 25 to 100 years, depending on the date and circumstances of publication and national laws.</p></tab-content>
								</tab-item>
								<tab-item>
									<tab-heading><p>Fair use</p></tab-heading>
									<tab-content>
										<p>Copyright prevents others from profiting thanks to your creative efforts, but it does not stop others using what you have produced. A researcher can use a limited amount of copyrighted materials in publications without permission. It is helpful to be aware that less stringent rules apply to the use of copyrighted material for educational purposes.</p>
										<p>If you are concerned about fair use of your copyrighted works, check with your institution's intellectual property office or officer. Likewise, if you plan to use copyrighted material and do not know if the copyright is still in effect, you should get advice. Your university or local library is a good source for initial advice (the British Library provides some useful guidance on fair use in UK copyright law &ndash; see the "Useful links" pod).</p>
									</tab-content>
								</tab-item>
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									<tab-heading><p>Restricted coverage</p></tab-heading>
									<tab-content>
										<p>As noted above, some things cannot be protected by copyright. Particular limitations to bear in mind include:</p>
										<ul>
											<li><strong>Ideas.</strong> Ideas can be used by anyone. They cannot be copyrighted or patented. If someone uses your idea, they should acknowledge their use, but since they could have come up with the same idea independently, you cannot claim ownership.</li>
											<li><strong>Facts and common information.</strong> You can copyright the words you use to explain facts or common information, but not the facts and common information on their own.</li>
											<li><strong>Trademarks.</strong> Trademarks are symbols or images used to describe something that is bought and sold/traded. Trademarks are covered by separate laws and do not, generally speaking, apply to research. You cannot 'trademark' your research findings. If your research leads to the development of a business, you can establish and protect a trademark for that business.</li>
										</ul>
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								<h4>Time</h4>
								<p>Copyrights are not granted forever. They generally last from 25 to 100 years, depending on the date and circumstances of publication and national laws.</p>
								<br>
								<h4>Fair use</h4>
								<p>Copyright prevents others from profiting thanks to your creative efforts, but it does not stop others using what you have produced. A researcher can use a limited amount of copyrighted materials in publications without permission. It is helpful to be aware that less stringent rules apply to the use of copyrighted material for educational purposes.</p>
								<p>If you are concerned about fair use of your copyrighted works, check with your institution's intellectual property office or officer. Likewise, if you plan to use copyrighted material and do not know if the copyright is still in effect, you should get advice. Your university or local library is a good source for initial advice (the British Library provides some useful guidance on fair use in UK copyright law &ndash; see the "Useful links" pod).</p>
								<hr>
								<h4>Restricted coverage</h4>
								<p>As noted, some things cannot be protected by copyright. Particular limitations to bear in mind include:</p>
								<ul>
									<li><strong>Ideas. </strong>Ideas can be used by anyone. They cannot be copyrighted or patented. If someone uses your idea, they should acknowledge their use, but since they could have come up with the same idea independently, you cannot claim ownership.</li>
									<li><strong>Facts and common information. </strong>You can copyright the words you use to explain facts or common information, but not the facts and common information on their own.</li>
									<li><strong>Trademarks. </strong>Trademarks are symbols or images used to describe something that is bought and sold/traded. Trademarks are covered by separate laws and do not, generally speaking, apply to research. You cannot 'trademark' your research findings. If your research leads to the development of a business, you can establish and protect a trademark for that business.</li>
								</ul>
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							<p>If you rely on copyright to protect your intellectual property or use material subject to copyright, make sure you understand the restrictions and limitations. The consequences of infringing on someone's copyright can be expensive.</p>
							
							<h3>Summary</h3>
							
							<p>Copyright is a simple way to protect your intellectual property. The act of creating a copy gives you ownership of that particular expression of the content. The copy must be creative, original and physically expressed. You must also consider the limitations that apply, bearing in mind the limitations imposed by time, fair use and the restrictions that limit the materials that can be copyrighted. You should make sure you are familiar with your national and local copyright rules.</p>
							
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