The current and predicted demands and pressures on Policing have changed significantly in the early part of the twenty first century (Desroches, et al., 2018). Whilst overall crime has reduced, the period has seen increases in demand brought about by elevated terrorist threat, borderless organised and cyber enabled crime alongside a requirement to improve investigations into criminality against the vulnerable such as sexual offending (College of Policing, 2015). Furthermore - as one of the few truly 24/7 emergency services, policing has seen significant mission creep into non crime areas such as mental health issues and public welfare.

This has been compounded further by the UK Government austerity measures commencing in 2011. The UK is not alone in facing the challenges about the effectiveness of its provided policing services – in an international comparison, policing in the United States is currently under extreme pressure to reform its approach – particularly use of force and disproportionality (Obama Foundation, 2020).

Balancing these increased demands against reduced budgets has required difficult and unpopular decisions to be made which have the potential to significantly impact on Police legitimacy. Future decisions have the potential to further impact, and setting the style and tone of contemporary policing will remain a challenge through effective leadership (Ramshaw, et al., 2019). 

The 2015 College of Policing leadership review identified significant threats to Police effectiveness and made a series of recommendations aimed at fundamentally changing both cultural and structural structures in order to deliver against demand. 

Through this assignment I aim to critically reflect on my own leadership and management style and performance, the challenges faced and the lessons learned within the culture of the Police service. It is simply not possible to reference, consider and assess every leadership theory and this piece of work will capture those that I have found to be most relevant through my leadership and management journey whilst providing some brief description and review.

Successful self‐development must rely on something more than time in the saddle
(Folkman & Zenger, 2020, p. 33)


Wagner (2006) described reflective practice as essential in order to maximise the benefits of experiential learning. The ability to critically reflect on one’s own performance is vital in the professional development of individuals across sectors.    Time taken to reflect contributes to improved performance in future and helps to clarify understanding and thinking (Cottrell, 2015; Rushmer, et al., 2004). The concept of reflective practice has constantly evolved and a number of models or theories have been developed. One of the earliest reflective models - Borton introduced a straightforward cycle of learning considering 3 questions namely, what?, so what?, now what?

 
Fig 1.
Borton’s reflective model
(Borton 1970, cited in Rolfe, 2014)
  

I would describe Borton’s as a very straightforward model, easy to recall and well suited during dynamic and fast-moving scenarios, or as a tool with which to facilitate a hot debrief. The drawback to this approach is that it could potentially oversimplify some of the important issues under consideration, without recognising or taking into account all influencing factors.

Gibb’s Reflective Cycle
 
Fig 2.
Gibb’s reflective cycle
(Gibbs, 1988 cited in University of Cumbria, 2020)	




Gibb’s cycle consists of 6 separate areas that need to be followed sequentially to facilitate detailed study. Personal reflection is a requirement at each stage to fully deliver experiential learning. The cycle will commence with an in-depth description of the incident/scenario, which is then followed by an examination of feelings before, during and after the event. Evaluation identifies what it is that went well and what didn’t, whilst analysis will consider any additional factors such as experience of previous similar incidents. Conclusion will pinpoint what exactly has been learned through each of the stages, and the action plan stage will ascertain what it is that needs to happen next, and what should happen if the scenario were ever to be repeated. I would say that Gibbs’ cycle undoubtedly provides a far more structured approach to experiential learning than that of Borton. It does promote a deeper and clearer thought process in sequentially examining each of the stages and can identify opportunities for self-development promoting opportunities to learn from both their own and other’s experience.

I am currently a South Wales Police Chief Inspector with 26 years police experience, and I have been in a variety of formal leadership roles since 2006. I have managed both large and small teams, consisting of both Police officers and staff.

The event I will go on to describe has taught me more about myself, my leadership style, and my shortcomings than any other single event and had a profound effect on me both personally and professionally.

The forthcoming reflective section will follow the Gibbs reflective cycle (Gibbs, 1988).

Unsatisfactory Performance Process

As a Detective Inspector within a busy unit I identified performance concerns relating to a Detective Constable to the point whereby formal unsatisfactory performance measures were implemented. Despite supervisory support and intervention, the officer’s performance showed no evidence of improvement and the matter was referred to me as the second line manager to take forward the second of a 3 stage formal process – the third stage potentially resulting in the officer being dismissed from the force. The formal process required that the officer and I be present – accompanied by a representative of the officer’s staff association and a HR advisor.

I challenged the officer – describing her performance as unacceptable and that she could face dismissal should she not improve. I pointed out the impact of her poor performance on her colleagues and the public. At this point she became upset and became increasingly emotional as the meeting went on to the point of sobbing uncontrollably. Eventually she was able to articulate that she was suffering from significant personal and professional difficulties to the point that she had been having thoughts of self-harm. She had returned from maternity leave and was suffering from a severe self-doubt to the point of anxiety which had a significant effect on her mental health.  She had undergone a difficult birth and had found motherhood to be challenging. She had lost her confidence and had been unable to reintegrate into the workplace on her return. She did not feel that she could raise this with colleagues or management due to fears around perceptions and to compound her challenges, she had recently discovered that her partner was having an affair with another serving officer on his team which was further impacting on her mental health.

She offered to resign from the Police Service at that point.

.1 Feelings

I had personal experience of previously working alongside the officer who had been an excellent DC. Proactive, committed, and productive with good attention to detail. Her performance had deteriorated to the point where she was not progressing allocated enquiries, was submitting poor quality products on the occasions when investigations were conducted and displaying negativity impacting on others.

I felt frustrated and annoyed by this. I could not understand why she was not performing.
When the officer broke down – I felt deeply upset by her reaction. At that point in time I wanted to be anywhere else in the world but there. I immediately felt a sense of guilt, followed by a sense of shame and disgust that I had put her in this position.

.2 Evaluation

I felt that it was positive that the officer had now shared this information which allowed me to provide appropriate support; However, I recognised that it had taken the invoking of formal Police performance procedures before this information was divulged. This caused me to question why.

.3 Analysis

In questioning why I had not become aware of this information sooner, I examined my operating environment and the way I which I led the unit.

I was well supported by my line management and had a good reputation as an investigator. I considered myself to be popular – an extroverted character who takes responsibility for getting things done

At this time, I was married, but without children. I would describe my marriage as a stable, safe, and trusting environment. I was the coach of my local rugby team that I had successfully captained for several years previously. I had been a relatively successful player – captaining every team in which I played from age 15. I am one of six children and have three brothers. I enjoyed spending time in their company, and that of my male schoolfriends whom I saw often. 

I would work hard through the week – frequently working extended hours and then play/coach rugby at the weekend and socialise with male friends and family. In short I would work hard and play hard.

My measure of success was getting the job done. I had some consideration for the team (in the context of getting the job done as opposed to developing the team) but I had little or no consideration for the individual – unless you were a male, hardworking extroverted character.

I had no consideration for those people that didn’t fit this general mould – certainly not the officer referred to above. She required a different environment in which she could thrive, an inclusive environment that allowed all individuals to express themselves, an environment of trust and confidence. 

My EI / Self-awareness was flawed.

.4 Conclusion
	
Overall, I was glad that the officer had now shared this information; However, through reflection I realised I needed to be more self-aware and emotionally intelligent. Emotional Intelligence is a vital skill for a successful Ieader, particularly in the context of the drive to be a more divers and inclusive organisation. I should have led the unit in such a way as to maximise the engagement of my staff as an inclusive, encouraging and supportive leader.

.5 Action Plan
	
It was clear to me that I should have created a climate of trust and confidence by effectively leading the unit in an inclusive and support way. I realised that I need to improve, upskill and examine and learn leadership principles in order to establish appropriate relationships which would enhance relations. I needed to ethically lead in such a way as to understand individuals so as to lead them in the best way, set a good example as a leader to all, thereby contributing to culture appropriately and creating the right environment where everyone can thrive – not just people like me! 


The College of Policing’s leadership review (2015) noted a number of relevant elements and central to this was the reimagining of policing into a profession as opposed to a craft or trade – with an associated emphasis on management and leadership development (Ramshaw, et al., 2019). Management and leadership are different but interrelated - though this concept is frequently misunderstood. So, what are the skills and competencies required to be successful? 
Management is a complex task involving processes such as planning, budgeting or organising in order to help an organisation consistently deliver results (Kotter, 1998). Leadership is more concerned with displaying behaviours, empowering, and inspiring individuals to move organisations forward as they move forward into the future. Lamprakis and Samanta (2018) describe leadership as one of the most important factors in delivering results for the organisation and in influencing employee behaviours. It is fair to say that both serve essential but ultimately different functions within an organisation. 

In an ever increasingly complex environment where workforce mobility has increased significantly, leaders need to inject passion into their employees through their leadership style. Managers of the 21st century must be aware of and control their own emotions whilst understanding and influencing those of their employees. They need to take on the challenges that organisations face, potentially identifying and implementing significant change programmes (Wethersby, 1999) . Contrary to the concept that management and leadership are entirely separate entities, it is important that modern managers also understand and display elements of leadership in order to maximise their effectiveness (Zaleznik, 2004).

Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

Developed by Blake and Mouton in 1964, this model identifies a number of styles based on dimensions of attitude namely concern for production or a leaning toward achieving results, and concern for people or thought for others. 

 
Fig 3.
Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid
(Blake & Mouton, 1964)	
The model predicts specific approaches dependant on the integration of the 2 dimensions.
•	1,1. Impoverished style would describe an individual primarily concerned with their own position, and avoidance of errors within the workplace. In this style people have little concern for either people or production.
•	1,9. The Country club style manager would have a higher concern for people, but none or little for production. Individuals using this style pay significant attention to their staff and hope that this will translate to positive performance. The drawback to this style is that whilst the work environment may be pleasant, it will not necessarily be productive. 
•	9,1. Authority compliance management focuses predominantly on productivity with little or no concern for their staff. This style is productive in crisis management such as a natural disaster or critical incident, but if used in the long term will result in poorly motivated staff and the associated cost of productivity and workforce turnover.
•	5,5. A middle of the road manager tries to balance the needs of the organisation and the individuals within. Whilst this manager tries to achieve results by showing some care for both areas, the result can often be that neither production nor people needs are met.
•	9,9. Using the team style a manager places significant importance on people and production. This manager encourages teamwork, promoting teamwork and investing in individuals to maximise their engagement. Blake and Mouton described how the model identified this as the best way to lead.

Each style was considered to represent distinctive orientations – with the interaction of leader attitudes defined through the leadership behaviours identified above. While it can be considered that the 2 axes identification of a ‘best way’ is overly simple – Blake and Mouton argue that the axes reflect attitudes, personality, feelings and behaviours and are therefore thorough and detailed in their assessment (Molloy, 1998). Unsurprisingly, the grid model has been subject to further review in the intervening period which has seen the addition of additional considerations and how these assist in terms of organisational development (Helmold, 2021).

Action Centred Leadership
In his seminal work, Adair (1973 as cited in Adair, 2006) introduced the concept of action centred leadership or the 3 task model. One of the predominant leadership theories – particularly in the UK, it identifies the actions required to lead effectively represented by the three interlocking circles below aimed at the task, the team and the individual.
 
Fig 4.	
Action Centred Leadership
(Adair, 1973 cited in Mindtools.com, 2020)
The dark area above is a visual representation of the way the three areas interact and depend on each other. Key to Adair’s findings is the need to keep of the three areas in balance in order to be successful by devoting equal activity to each. In practice – this is difficult to achieve in an operational context, and the true balance will differ over time depending on circumstances (BRAUN, et al., 2012; Schulze & Pinkow, 2020). It is also important not to over simplify the three area model as Adair also identified quality, situation and functionality as important considerations (Adair, 2006) and that groups or teams also develop their own personality. In the context of the reflective practice example above – my effort was too heavily focussed on the task, impacted adversely on the individual therefore impacting on the performance of the team. With regards to my current leadership action and style – I do consider it appropriate to deviate from the model to focus on one area over another at a point in time; however, the key to my maintaining balance is considering and continually assessing circumstances, having the self-awareness to consider the approach and proactively and intentionally focus on a particular course of action. Unintentionally prioritising one area over another is storing up problems for the future.
Tannenbaum-Schmidt Leadership Continuum

 
Fig 5.
Source
The Tannenbaum-Schmidt model relates to the level of authority exercised by a leader and the freedom allowed to teams and individuals therein.  Tannenbaum and Schmidt identified how leadership styles are impacted by the many potential variables that effect the individual, the team and the situation and can land at any point on the continuum at any given time. At one end leaders simply tell others what to do, whilst at the other are completely hands off. As you move through the model and the level of freedom you allow increases, the levels of authority used will decrease (Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1973) .
•	Tells. This leader tells the team what to do and expects them to do it. Useful in crisis situations, but impactive on engagement long term.
•	Sells. This leader makes a decision and then explains the logic behind it. Whilst the leader is not seeking input into the decision, this style does allow the team to see the manager as recognising their importance.
•	Suggests. Using this style, a leader will decide, explain the decision and then invite questions which is useful in embedding a deeper understanding of the rationale behind the decision.
•	Consults. This leader makes a provisional decision, consulting the team before making a final decision. Useful in capturing and considering all views, but can cause difficulty if a team is inexperienced or with limited knowledge. This style can increase engagement and motivation through greater involvement in the team in reaching a decision.
•	Joins. Using this style, the leader presents the problem to the team, working collaboratively with them to reach a decision. This leader initially raises the question, but not solutions.  Again, this encourages engagement and can increase motivation.
•	Delegates. This leader sets parameters, before allowing the team to reach the decision whilst maintaining accountability for that decision. This could be appropriate for experienced teams.
•	Abdicates. This leader lets the team identify which problems to solve and how to resolve them. They will implement the solution and can be extremely motivating. Care must be taken as results could be negative unless dealing with extremely experienced teams. 
An important and useful factor within the Tannenbaum-Schmidt continuum is the ability to adopt different leadership styles at a point in time and recognising that a specific leadership style is not appropriate in all circumstances (Helmold, 2020). Drawbacks include possible over generalisation by providing a framework only without an industry or role specific approach. 


Situational Leadership
Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership (SLT) model establishes that there is no one single optimum leadership style and most effective leadership is the preserve of those that adapt their leadership style dependant on the circumstances or task to be accomplished and the ability and experience of those that they lead (Hersey & Blanchard, 1977). In applying this theory, managers base their leadership style on the readiness or maturity of the follower .
 
Fig 6.
Situational Leadership Model
From www.kenblanchard.com
	
The model helps leaders to identify the needs and abilities of their staff from enthusiastic beginners [D1] through to self-reliant achievers [D4], and how to apply the correct approach from directing [S1] to delegating [S4] dependent on the particular circumstances.
In considering the practical application of this theory I found it useful to consider the example of Phil Jackson - a well known coach (and former player) within the US National Basketball Association.  Jackson is one of the most successful coaches in the history of professional sport and coached star players Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O'Neil. Unlike many of his peers, Jackson was a relatively introverted character who would carefully consider the strengths of his players. Through observation, he learned that Jordan worked harder in the gym than any other player and pushed others to achieve their goals. Kobe Bryant also shared these qualities and Jackson was able to identify both as level D4 individuals within the situational leadership model as being highly competent and motivated. As such he was able to entrust both Jordan and Bryant with significant responsibilities knowing that both would deliver. Jackson identified that O'Neil was operating at D3 level - highly competent, but relatively low commitment due to the amount of time that O'Neil spent on other activities such as appearing in movies and music videos. Jackson focussed more effort than with Jordan and Bryant and communicated to O'Neil how he could improve if he focussed his efforts more on basketball. O'Neil did this and in 2000 was voted the league's most valuable player (Penn State University, 2016). 
It is important to note that whilst SLT does provide an intuitive and logical approach (indeed, it does seem appropriate to delegate authority to a D4 individual), there is an argument that the model over simplifies considerations when determining an appropriate leadership style (Meirovich & Gu, 2015).
In their technical examination of Situational Leadership Theory, Cairns et al (1998) noted how levels of leadership activity can be matched in cases of  low and moderate follower readiness; however, high follower readiness is anomalous in that this group’s requirements exceed that suggested via SLT modelling and do indeed require significant levels of leader interaction. This accords with the later findings of Bush (2017) in that highly motivated employees within the millennial group are more intrinsically motivated and require strong mentorship in order to maximise their engagement and develop them for leadership roles. 
Transformational Leadership
Bass (1990) highlighted how many leadership theories tended to focus on the assignment of tasks (transactional leadership) set by the leader, which would subsequently result in reward or sanction dependant on completion. Bass recognised the necessity for an additional approach – that would encourage the individual to see past personal interest to deliver optimum outcomes for the team or organisation. Featuring heavily in many modern leadership reviews ‘transformational leadership’ aims to motivate followers to exceed expectations by focussing on team success and has been empirically established through several areas of research (Bass & Aviolo, 1990) :-
•	Idealised influence. The importance of positive role modelling, determination and commitment
•	Inspirational motivation. Positive leadership behaviours that instil confidence in an organisation and it’s future.
•	Intellectual stimulation. Challenging employees and encouraging employees to think, create and problem solve.
•	Individualised consideration. Extending consideration and care to individuals, taking account of them personally and adopting a coaching or mentoring approach.
It is important to note that Bass did not propose that transactional leadership should be shelved – rather that it should be combined with transformational leadership in order to deliver against organisational objectives, whilst developing and inspiring individuals and meeting all of the individual’s needs in Maslow’s terms.

 
Fig 7.
Maslow’s 7 stage hierarchy of needs.
Expert Programme Management
Maslow’s (1943, 1987) hierarchy is a motivational theory originally consisting of five levels (later expanded to seven as above) of human needs beginning with survival up to self-fulfilment. Used significantly within education the pyramid identifies how individuals will be unable to perform optimally unless their physiological and cognitive needs are first met. As an example, a tired, hungry student will find concentration difficult, or a student with low self-confidence will not progress optimally (Mcleod, 2018).
Goleman’s six leadership styles and Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth
(Salovey, et al., 1997, p. 197)  
Emotional intelligence in leadership has been the subject of much study for a number of years. The relevance of emotional intelligence to successful leadership is well established (Kim & Kim, 2017: Lam & O’Higgins, 2012) and emotionally intelligent leaders are indeed more successful professionally (Gardner & Stough, 2002). Described by Goleman (1998) as more important than general intelligence, emotional intelligence can have a profound effect on job satisfaction and employee engagement (Mojgan & Bagheri, 2013; Mohammad, et al., 2014; Kassim, et al., 2016), develops over time and can be enhanced through better self-awareness. Clearly a vital skill for a succesful leader, I have researched much of the theory around emotional intelligence and undertaken personality testing. This confirms that I am energetic, enthusiastic and keen to get involved in new things. I am an extroverted character and this brings benefits in that I take responsibilty and make decisions, however I recognise how this can be overpowering for some people and so I temper my approach where necessary – applying active listening practices to achieve results. Self awareness is a key element of emotional intelligence (BRATTON, et al., 2011) with clear links to awareness of leadership skills. Through his work around emotional intelligence, Goleman (2002) identified six leadership styles. Each is illustrated with a brief description of the implications for the individual and organisation: -
 
•	Coercive leader – one who demands the instant compliance of others. This style would work well in crisis management but would contribute to employee disengagement in the longer term.
•	Authoritative leader – one who marshals others towards their vision. A style that works well in change management processes where clear direction is required.
•	Affiliative leader – one who creates emotional connections and seeks harmony. This leader focusses on personal relationships and is good in obtaining buy in but could result in little focus in achieving goals or maximising productivity.
•	Democratic leader – one who seeks consensus achieved through participation. A transformational style and well suited to capturing various viewpoints prior to arriving at a decision. 
•	Pacesetting leader – one who expects excellence from others; encouraging self-direction.  Useful when dealing with a knowledgeable and competent team, however could be problematic for inexperienced individuals. 
•	Coaching leader – one who seeks to develop and equip others for the future. This emotionally intelligent style works well when establishing long term strength, maximising employee engagement in achieving goals.

Goleman believed that leaders need the ability to switch between leadership styles depending on the unique circumstance of a particular scenario (Goleman, 1998). To  consider this further Saxena, et al, (2017) identified that leaders preferred different styles depending on different levels of seniority and that more senior leaders are more comfortable in changing styles depending on specific circumstances, and I see this as an important consideration as I have moved through the rank structure from first line supervision to more senior management.

Communication and Trust	
Described as an essential element of interaction, effective communication sits at the heart of leadership, and it is vital that leaders consider what communication behaviour fits best with any particular scenario.  People focussed leadership requires carefully considered communication and the level of interpersonal interaction can be linked to higher levels of satisfaction within employees (de Vries, et al., 2010)
Even before the global Covid-19 pandemic, many organisations have a virtual element involving digital or technological solutions. To fulfil their roles successfully, leaders and managers alike have to ensure a common understanding of the task, organise the interactions with the members and promote members’ commitment to the task and to the team; However, face-to-face communication is no longer the only way managers can communicate their messages. In some cases – remote team management, for example, may limit opportunities for face-to-face contact. Telephone, email, and social media electronic communications are in everyday use and offer alternatives that are useful for many contact styles (Lipnack & Stamps, 2000). 
Trust is a crucial part of any relationship between a leader and their people. The CMI (2014, p. 1) describes trust as 'the glue that holds relationships together'. However, in circumstances where faith is lacking, a leader can find that his supporters look to someone else for guidance and direction. In a study it was established that only 20% of employees trust their organisation – and only 11% their manager (Blanchard, 2013). This can lead to confusion about course internally, or to backlash and potential damage to credibility if a lack of confidence leads people outside the company to raise their complaints. The trust is gained over time and built up but can be quickly lost. Managers play a vital role in establishing trust within an organisation (Shawn Burke, et al., 2007; Braun, et al., 2013; Stevenson, et al., 2020). A trusting culture contributes to successful teams and organisations, but this is a two-way arrangement. Managers need to be confident in the ability of individuals within their teams in order to carry out work to the best of their ability. Similarly, individuals must trust their management to lead them in the right direction and to fulfil their goals. Encouraging the behaviours that build trust create better motivated employees which in turn lead to productive organisations (Chartered Management Institute, 2014). 

The ABCD trust model (Blanchard, 2013) sets out a simple model for understanding, developing and assessing trust through four areas.
 
 
 
Fig 8.
ABCD Trust Model
From toolshero.com	

•	Able - demonstrate competence. Individuals will respect the actions of others that demonstrate ability. Managers are presupposed to have a certain level of expertise and therefore earning the respect of colleagues and subordinates. If they do not show that they have that experience, staff will have less confidence in their manager becoming less supportive. Staff that demonstrate their skills will inspire and increase manager confidence in them. 
 
•	Believable - act with integrity. Managers prove they are trustworthy by behaving with honesty and will not harm the confidence and respect that their workers have in them. People expect to live professional lives according to and aligned with the principles and beliefs of the organisation. It is their responsibility to uphold the company policy in a consistent manner and to act accordingly. 

•	Connected - care about others. Individuals prove that they have genuine interest in colleagues by showing interest in them. They listen well to others and have good communication skills which add to an environment of enjoyment in the job. The manager's earnest nature will rub off on the staff, which will improve the cohesion of a unit. 


•	Dependable - maintain reliability. When a manager shows others that they can be depended upon, they develop respect and support from their staff. Employees and others will increase their trust of their manager when they deliver on their promises within the agreed time. 
 
Through applying what has been discussed above, a manager will collaborate with staff and subordinates to build a good and long-lasting relationship of trust. 

It is also important to consider organisational culture, values and ethics in the context of trust in leadership and management. Leadership plays a unique role in establishing and embedding culture within a group, and beliefs, values and assumptions of leaders play a significant role in establishing culture. [Schein 2010]. These wider considerations influence decision making and adherence to ethical norms contributes significantly to integrity over the longer term. [Bright Hub Project Management 2020] 
Blanchard provides a good example of testing decision making against organisational ethics to maintain trust. In 2001 his company was badly hit by the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre - losing $1.5 million dollars in sales that month. One suggestion from senior leaders was to cut staff numbers by 10% across the organisation in order to reduce expenditure. This decision was tested against the company values of ethical behaviour, relationships, success, and learning. With this in mind, was cutting staff numbers at that time ethical? Whilst this was legal and would achieve the outcome required - the straightforward answer was no. Instead the company successfully pursued a course of action that drew on the knowledge and experience of all of the staff to maximise revenue and minimise expenditure. [Blanchard 2010] 
Conclusion