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  <title>Stack vs Heap Allocation | ACCB5017</title>
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n=0;n<o;n++)this._dists[n]=Eu(t[2*n],t[2*n+1],w.x,w.y);Cu(this._ids,this._dists,0,o-1),this._hullStart=h;let M=3;e[h]=n[p]=d,e[d]=n[h]=p,e[p]=n[d]=h,r[h]=0,r[d]=1,r[p]=2,i.fill(-1),i[this._hashKey(g,y)]=h,i[this._hashKey(v,_)]=d,i[this._hashKey(m,x)]=p,this.trianglesLen=0,this._addTriangle(h,d,p,-1,-1,-1);for(let o,a,u=0;u<this._ids.length;u++){const c=this._ids[u],f=t[2*c],s=t[2*c+1];if(u>0&&Math.abs(f-o)<=Tu&&Math.abs(s-a)<=Tu)continue;if(o=f,a=s,c===h||c===d||c===p)continue;let l=0;for(let t=0,n=this._hashKey(f,s);t<this._hashSize&&(l=i[(n+t)%this._hashSize],-1===l||l===e[l]);t++);l=n[l];let g,y=l;for(;g=e[y],Mu(f,s,t[2*y],t[2*y+1],t[2*g],t[2*g+1])>=0;)if(y=g,y===l){y=-1;break}if(-1===y)continue;let v=this._addTriangle(y,c,e[y],-1,-1,r[y]);r[c]=this._legalize(v+2),r[y]=v,M++;let _=e[y];for(;g=e[_],Mu(f,s,t[2*_],t[2*_+1],t[2*g],t[2*g+1])<0;)v=this._addTriangle(_,c,g,r[c],-1,r[_]),r[c]=this._legalize(v+2),e[_]=_,M--,_=g;if(y===l)for(;g=n[y],Mu(f,s,t[2*g],t[2*g+1],t[2*y],t[2*y+1])<0;)v=this._addTriangle(g,c,y,-1,r[y],r[g]),this._legalize(v+2),r[g]=v,e[y]=y,M--,y=g;this._hullStart=n[c]=y,e[y]=n[_]=c,e[c]=_,i[this._hashKey(f,s)]=c,i[this._hashKey(t[2*y],t[2*y+1])]=y}this.hull=new Uint32Array(M);for(let t=0,n=this._hullStart;t<M;t++)this.hull[t]=n,n=e[n];this.triangles=this._triangles.subarray(0,this.trianglesLen),this.halfedges=this._halfedges.subarray(0,this.trianglesLen)}_hashKey(t,n){return Math.floor(function(t,n){const e=t/(Math.abs(t)+Math.abs(n));return(n>0?3-e:1+e)/4}(t-this._cx,n-this._cy)*this._hashSize)%this._hashSize}_legalize(t){const{_triangles:n,_halfedges:e,coords:r}=this;let i=0,o=0;for(;;){const a=e[t],u=t-t%3;if(o=u+(t+2)%3,-1===a){if(0===i)break;t=Au[--i];continue}const c=a-a%3,f=u+(t+1)%3,s=c+(a+2)%3,l=n[o],h=n[t],d=n[f],p=n[s];if(Nu(r[2*l],r[2*l+1],r[2*h],r[2*h+1],r[2*d],r[2*d+1],r[2*p],r[2*p+1])){n[t]=p,n[a]=l;const r=e[s];if(-1===r){let n=this._hullStart;do{if(this._hullTri[n]===s){this._hullTri[n]=t;break}n=this._hullPrev[n]}while(n!==this._hullStart)}this._link(t,r),this._link(a,e[o]),this._link(o,s);const u=c+(a+1)%3;i<Au.length&&(Au[i++]=u)}else{if(0===i)break;t=Au[--i]}}return o}_link(t,n){this._halfedges[t]=n,-1!==n&&(this._halfedges[n]=t)}_addTriangle(t,n,e,r,i,o){const a=this.trianglesLen;return this._triangles[a]=t,this._triangles[a+1]=n,this._triangles[a+2]=e,this._link(a,r),this._link(a+1,i),this._link(a+2,o),this.trianglesLen+=3,a}}function Eu(t,n,e,r){const i=t-e,o=n-r;return i*i+o*o}function Nu(t,n,e,r,i,o,a,u){const c=t-a,f=n-u,s=e-a,l=r-u,h=i-a,d=o-u,p=s*s+l*l,g=h*h+d*d;return c*(l*g-p*d)-f*(s*g-p*h)+(c*c+f*f)*(s*d-l*h)<0}function ku(t,n,e,r,i,o){const a=e-t,u=r-n,c=i-t,f=o-n,s=a*a+u*u,l=c*c+f*f,h=.5/(a*f-u*c),d=(f*s-u*l)*h,p=(a*l-c*s)*h;return d*d+p*p}function Cu(t,n,e,r){if(r-e<=20)for(let i=e+1;i<=r;i++){const r=t[i],o=n[r];let a=i-1;for(;a>=e&&n[t[a]]>o;)t[a+1]=t[a--];t[a+1]=r}else{let i=e+1,o=r;Pu(t,e+r>>1,i),n[t[e]]>n[t[r]]&&Pu(t,e,r),n[t[i]]>n[t[r]]&&Pu(t,i,r),n[t[e]]>n[t[i]]&&Pu(t,e,i);const a=t[i],u=n[a];for(;;){do{i++}while(n[t[i]]<u);do{o--}while(n[t[o]]>u);if(o<i)break;Pu(t,i,o)}t[e+1]=t[o],t[o]=a,r-i+1>=o-e?(Cu(t,n,i,r),Cu(t,n,e,o-1)):(Cu(t,n,e,o-1),Cu(t,n,i,r))}}function Pu(t,n,e){const r=t[n];t[n]=t[e],t[e]=r}function zu(t){return t[0]}function $u(t){return t[1]}const Du=1e-6;class Ru{constructor(){this._x0=this._y0=this._x1=this._y1=null,this._=""}moveTo(t,n){this._+=`M${this._x0=this._x1=+t},${this._y0=this._y1=+n}`}closePath(){null!==this._x1&&(this._x1=this._x0,this._y1=this._y0,this._+="Z")}lineTo(t,n){this._+=`L${this._x1=+t},${this._y1=+n}`}arc(t,n,e){const r=(t=+t)+(e=+e),i=n=+n;if(e<0)throw new Error("negative radius");null===this._x1?this._+=`M${r},${i}`:(Math.abs(this._x1-r)>Du||Math.abs(this._y1-i)>Du)&&(this._+="L"+r+","+i),e&&(this._+=`A${e},${e},0,1,1,${t-e},${n}A${e},${e},0,1,1,${this._x1=r},${this._y1=i}`)}rect(t,n,e,r){this._+=`M${this._x0=this._x1=+t},${this._y0=this._y1=+n}h${+e}v${+r}h${-e}Z`}value(){return this._||null}}class Fu{constructor(){this._=[]}moveTo(t,n){this._.push([t,n])}closePath(){this._.push(this._[0].slice())}lineTo(t,n){this._.push([t,n])}value(){return this._.length?this._:null}}class qu{constructor(t,[n,e,r,i]=[0,0,960,500]){if(!((r=+r)>=(n=+n)&&(i=+i)>=(e=+e)))throw new Error("invalid bounds");this.delaunay=t,this._circumcenters=new Float64Array(2*t.points.length),this.vectors=new Float64Array(2*t.points.length),this.xmax=r,this.xmin=n,this.ymax=i,this.ymin=e,this._init()}update(){return this.delaunay.update(),this._init(),this}_init(){const{delaunay:{points:t,hull:n,triangles:e},vectors:r}=this;let i,o;const a=this.circumcenters=this._circumcenters.subarray(0,e.length/3*2);for(let r,u,c=0,f=0,s=e.length;c<s;c+=3,f+=2){const s=2*e[c],l=2*e[c+1],h=2*e[c+2],d=t[s],p=t[s+1],g=t[l],y=t[l+1],v=t[h],_=t[h+1],b=g-d,m=y-p,x=v-d,w=_-p,M=2*(b*w-m*x);if(Math.abs(M)<1e-9){if(void 0===i){i=o=0;for(const e of n)i+=t[2*e],o+=t[2*e+1];i/=n.length,o/=n.length}const e=1e9*Math.sign((i-d)*w-(o-p)*x);r=(d+v)/2-e*w,u=(p+_)/2+e*x}else{const t=1/M,n=b*b+m*m,e=x*x+w*w;r=d+(w*n-m*e)*t,u=p+(b*e-x*n)*t}a[f]=r,a[f+1]=u}let u,c,f,s=n[n.length-1],l=4*s,h=t[2*s],d=t[2*s+1];r.fill(0);for(let e=0;e<n.length;++e)s=n[e],u=l,c=h,f=d,l=4*s,h=t[2*s],d=t[2*s+1],r[u+2]=r[l]=f-d,r[u+3]=r[l+1]=h-c}render(t){const n=null==t?t=new Ru:void 0,{delaunay:{halfedges:e,inedges:r,hull:i},circumcenters:o,vectors:a}=this;if(i.length<=1)return null;for(let n=0,r=e.length;n<r;++n){const r=e[n];if(r<n)continue;const i=2*Math.floor(n/3),a=2*Math.floor(r/3),u=o[i],c=o[i+1],f=o[a],s=o[a+1];this._renderSegment(u,c,f,s,t)}let u,c=i[i.length-1];for(let n=0;n<i.length;++n){u=c,c=i[n];const e=2*Math.floor(r[c]/3),f=o[e],s=o[e+1],l=4*u,h=this._project(f,s,a[l+2],a[l+3]);h&&this._renderSegment(f,s,h[0],h[1],t)}return n&&n.value()}renderBounds(t){const n=null==t?t=new Ru:void 0;return t.rect(this.xmin,this.ymin,this.xmax-this.xmin,this.ymax-this.ymin),n&&n.value()}renderCell(t,n){const e=null==n?n=new Ru:void 0,r=this._clip(t);if(null===r||!r.length)return;n.moveTo(r[0],r[1]);let i=r.length;for(;r[0]===r[i-2]&&r[1]===r[i-1]&&i>1;)i-=2;for(let t=2;t<i;t+=2)r[t]===r[t-2]&&r[t+1]===r[t-1]||n.lineTo(r[t],r[t+1]);return n.closePath(),e&&e.value()}*cellPolygons(){const{delaunay:{points:t}}=this;for(let n=0,e=t.length/2;n<e;++n){const t=this.cellPolygon(n);t&&(t.index=n,yield t)}}cellPolygon(t){const n=new Fu;return this.renderCell(t,n),n.value()}_renderSegment(t,n,e,r,i){let o;const a=this._regioncode(t,n),u=this._regioncode(e,r);0===a&&0===u?(i.moveTo(t,n),i.lineTo(e,r)):(o=this._clipSegment(t,n,e,r,a,u))&&(i.moveTo(o[0],o[1]),i.lineTo(o[2],o[3]))}contains(t,n,e){return(n=+n)==n&&(e=+e)==e&&this.delaunay._step(t,n,e)===t}*neighbors(t){const n=this._clip(t);if(n)for(const e of this.delaunay.neighbors(t)){const t=this._clip(e);if(t)t:for(let r=0,i=n.length;r<i;r+=2)for(let o=0,a=t.length;o<a;o+=2)if(n[r]===t[o]&&n[r+1]===t[o+1]&&n[(r+2)%i]===t[(o+a-2)%a]&&n[(r+3)%i]===t[(o+a-1)%a]){yield e;break t}}}_cell(t){const{circumcenters:n,delaunay:{inedges:e,halfedges:r,triangles:i}}=this,o=e[t];if(-1===o)return null;const a=[];let u=o;do{const e=Math.floor(u/3);if(a.push(n[2*e],n[2*e+1]),u=u%3==2?u-2:u+1,i[u]!==t)break;u=r[u]}while(u!==o&&-1!==u);return a}_clip(t){if(0===t&&1===this.delaunay.hull.length)return[this.xmax,this.ymin,this.xmax,this.ymax,this.xmin,this.ymax,this.xmin,this.ymin];const n=this._cell(t);if(null===n)return null;const{vectors:e}=this,r=4*t;return this._simplify(e[r]||e[r+1]?this._clipInfinite(t,n,e[r],e[r+1],e[r+2],e[r+3]):this._clipFinite(t,n))}_clipFinite(t,n){const e=n.length;let r,i,o,a,u=null,c=n[e-2],f=n[e-1],s=this._regioncode(c,f),l=0;for(let h=0;h<e;h+=2)if(r=c,i=f,c=n[h],f=n[h+1],o=s,s=this._regioncode(c,f),0===o&&0===s)a=l,l=0,u?u.push(c,f):u=[c,f];else{let n,e,h,d,p;if(0===o){if(null===(n=this._clipSegment(r,i,c,f,o,s)))continue;[e,h,d,p]=n}else{if(null===(n=this._clipSegment(c,f,r,i,s,o)))continue;[d,p,e,h]=n,a=l,l=this._edgecode(e,h),a&&l&&this._edge(t,a,l,u,u.length),u?u.push(e,h):u=[e,h]}a=l,l=this._edgecode(d,p),a&&l&&this._edge(t,a,l,u,u.length),u?u.push(d,p):u=[d,p]}if(u)a=l,l=this._edgecode(u[0],u[1]),a&&l&&this._edge(t,a,l,u,u.length);else if(this.contains(t,(this.xmin+this.xmax)/2,(this.ymin+this.ymax)/2))return[this.xmax,this.ymin,this.xmax,this.ymax,this.xmin,this.ymax,this.xmin,this.ymin];return u}_clipSegment(t,n,e,r,i,o){const a=i<o;for(a&&([t,n,e,r,i,o]=[e,r,t,n,o,i]);;){if(0===i&&0===o)return a?[e,r,t,n]:[t,n,e,r];if(i&o)return null;let u,c,f=i||o;8&f?(u=t+(e-t)*(this.ymax-n)/(r-n),c=this.ymax):4&f?(u=t+(e-t)*(this.ymin-n)/(r-n),c=this.ymin):2&f?(c=n+(r-n)*(this.xmax-t)/(e-t),u=this.xmax):(c=n+(r-n)*(this.xmin-t)/(e-t),u=this.xmin),i?(t=u,n=c,i=this._regioncode(t,n)):(e=u,r=c,o=this._regioncode(e,r))}}_clipInfinite(t,n,e,r,i,o){let a,u=Array.from(n);if((a=this._project(u[0],u[1],e,r))&&u.unshift(a[0],a[1]),(a=this._project(u[u.length-2],u[u.length-1],i,o))&&u.push(a[0],a[1]),u=this._clipFinite(t,u))for(let n,e=0,r=u.length,i=this._edgecode(u[r-2],u[r-1]);e<r;e+=2)n=i,i=this._edgecode(u[e],u[e+1]),n&&i&&(e=this._edge(t,n,i,u,e),r=u.length);else this.contains(t,(this.xmin+this.xmax)/2,(this.ymin+this.ymax)/2)&&(u=[this.xmin,this.ymin,this.xmax,this.ymin,this.xmax,this.ymax,this.xmin,this.ymax]);return u}_edge(t,n,e,r,i){for(;n!==e;){let e,o;switch(n){case 5:n=4;continue;case 4:n=6,e=this.xmax,o=this.ymin;break;case 6:n=2;continue;case 2:n=10,e=this.xmax,o=this.ymax;break;case 10:n=8;continue;case 8:n=9,e=this.xmin,o=this.ymax;break;case 9:n=1;continue;case 1:n=5,e=this.xmin,o=this.ymin}r[i]===e&&r[i+1]===o||!this.contains(t,e,o)||(r.splice(i,0,e,o),i+=2)}return i}_project(t,n,e,r){let i,o,a,u=1/0;if(r<0){if(n<=this.ymin)return null;(i=(this.ymin-n)/r)<u&&(a=this.ymin,o=t+(u=i)*e)}else if(r>0){if(n>=this.ymax)return null;(i=(this.ymax-n)/r)<u&&(a=this.ymax,o=t+(u=i)*e)}if(e>0){if(t>=this.xmax)return null;(i=(this.xmax-t)/e)<u&&(o=this.xmax,a=n+(u=i)*r)}else if(e<0){if(t<=this.xmin)return null;(i=(this.xmin-t)/e)<u&&(o=this.xmin,a=n+(u=i)*r)}return[o,a]}_edgecode(t,n){return(t===this.xmin?1:t===this.xmax?2:0)|(n===this.ymin?4:n===this.ymax?8:0)}_regioncode(t,n){return(t<this.xmin?1:t>this.xmax?2:0)|(n<this.ymin?4:n>this.ymax?8:0)}_simplify(t){if(t&&t.length>4){for(let n=0;n<t.length;n+=2){const e=(n+2)%t.length,r=(n+4)%t.length;(t[n]===t[e]&&t[e]===t[r]||t[n+1]===t[e+1]&&t[e+1]===t[r+1])&&(t.splice(e,2),n-=2)}t.length||(t=null)}return t}}const Uu=2*Math.PI,Iu=Math.pow;function Ou(t){return t[0]}function Bu(t){return t[1]}function Yu(t,n,e){return[t+Math.sin(t+n)*e,n+Math.cos(t-n)*e]}class Lu{static from(t,n=Ou,e=Bu,r){return new Lu("length"in t?function(t,n,e,r){const i=t.length,o=new Float64Array(2*i);for(let a=0;a<i;++a){const i=t[a];o[2*a]=n.call(r,i,a,t),o[2*a+1]=e.call(r,i,a,t)}return o}(t,n,e,r):Float64Array.from(function*(t,n,e,r){let i=0;for(const o of t)yield n.call(r,o,i,t),yield e.call(r,o,i,t),++i}(t,n,e,r)))}constructor(t){this._delaunator=new Su(t),this.inedges=new Int32Array(t.length/2),this._hullIndex=new Int32Array(t.length/2),this.points=this._delaunator.coords,this._init()}update(){return this._delaunator.update(),this._init(),this}_init(){const t=this._delaunator,n=this.points;if(t.hull&&t.hull.length>2&&function(t){const{triangles:n,coords:e}=t;for(let t=0;t<n.length;t+=3){const 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</head>
<body>

<header class="lab-header">
  <img src="https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/themes/custom/rutherford/images/logo.svg"
       alt="University of Wales Trinity Saint David">
  <div class="lab-header-text">
    <div class="module-code">ACCB5017 - Games Architecture and Mechanics</div>
    <h1>Stack vs Heap Allocation</h1>
  </div>
</header>

<main>

  <section class="lab-section">
    <h2>Overview</h2>
    <p>This lab uses a small console program to make the two places a C++ program stores its data directly visible: the stack, where every local variable lives until its enclosing scope ends, and the heap, where memory outlives any single function and has to be released by hand. Starting from a working demo that allocates a single <code>int</code> and a <code>Person</code> object on the heap, you will add stack-allocated equivalents alongside them, print addresses from both regions to compare them, watch a constructor and destructor fire at different points depending on where an object lives, and finally track down a memory leak caused by a missing <code>delete</code>.</p>
  </section>

  <section class="lab-section">
    <h2>Learning Objectives</h2>
    <p>By the end of this lab you will be able to:</p>
    <ul>
      <li>Explain the difference between stack memory and heap memory in terms of who allocates it and who is responsible for freeing it</li>
      <li>Identify, from a variable's declaration alone, whether it will be allocated on the stack or the heap</li>
      <li>Distinguish a stack address from a heap address by comparing printed pointer values from both regions in the same program</li>
      <li>Use `new` and `delete` correctly to allocate and release a single heap object</li>
      <li>Trace when a constructor and destructor run to determine whether an object was destroyed automatically at scope end or manually through `delete`</li>
      <li>Diagnose and fix a memory leak caused by a missing `delete`, and explain why a leak has no visible effect at first but becomes serious in a long-running program</li>
      <li>Distinguish the address-of operator `&` from the dereference operator `*`, and explain what each one does to a pointer</li>
      <li>Identify situations, such as a large array of objects or an object that must outlive the function that created it, where heap allocation is necessary and stack allocation is not an option</li>
    </ul>
  </section>

  <section class="lab-section">
    <h2>Concept</h2>
    <p>A C++ program needs somewhere to put every variable it creates, and it has exactly two places to choose from: the <strong>stack</strong> and the <strong>heap</strong>. Get this choice wrong and a program either loses data the moment a function returns, because a local variable stops existing as soon as its enclosing block ends, or it leaves memory reserved forever because nothing ever frees it. Neither failure produces a compiler error, so the difference has to be understood, not discovered by trial and error.</p>

<p>The stack is a fixed block of memory reserved for the current thread, and it behaves exactly like the data structure it is named after, or like a stack of plates in a kitchen cupboard. every function call pushes a new frame holding that function's local variables onto the top, the way a clean plate gets added to the top of the stack, and returning from the function pops that frame straight back off and reclaims its memory instantly, the way the top plate gets lifted off again. nothing is ever added or removed anywhere except the top, so there is never any question of where a stack variable is or how long it takes to find. Because a stack variable's memory is tied to the <strong>scope</strong> it was declared in, it has <strong>automatic storage duration</strong>. it is created and destroyed for you. The heap, by contrast, is a much larger pool of memory that any part of the program can request from at any time through <strong>dynamic allocation</strong>, more like a spare bedroom than a cupboard. things get put wherever there happens to be room, in whatever order they arrive, with no tidy top-of-the-stack rule governing any of it, and nothing about it is tied to a function's scope, so nothing about it is cleaned up automatically either. the only way to find something in the heap again later is to have kept hold of exactly where you put it, which is precisely what a pointer is for.</p>

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<p>That push-and-pop rule is not just an analogy, it is exactly what happens while code runs. Every function call pushes a new <strong>stack frame</strong> holding that function's local variables and parameters, and every return pops the most recently pushed frame straight back off. Step through the short example below, a chain of three calls, to watch it happen. the highlighted line in the code tracks exactly what is executing at each step.</p>
<pre style="margin-bottom:0;"><code id="concept-callstack-code"><span id="cs-l1" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">int main() {</span>
<span id="cs-l2" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">    calculateTotal();</span>
<span id="cs-l3" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">}</span>

<span id="cs-l5" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">void calculateTotal() {</span>
<span id="cs-l6" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">    calculateArea(5);</span>
<span id="cs-l7" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">}</span>

<span id="cs-l9" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">int calculateArea(int side) {</span>
<span id="cs-l10" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">    return side * side;</span>
<span id="cs-l11" style="display:block;padding:1px 0 1px 6px;margin-left:-6px;border-left:3px solid transparent;">}</span></code></pre>
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<p>A <strong>pointer</strong> is what connects a piece of code to a heap allocation, and it is simply a variable that stores a memory address instead of an ordinary value, declared with a type followed by an asterisk, such as <code>int* h</code>. Two operators move between a pointer and the thing it targets, and they are opposites. the <strong>address-of operator</strong> <code>&amp;</code> takes an existing variable and produces its address, as in <code>&amp;stackInt</code>, which is how a pointer can be made to target something that already exists, on the stack or the heap. the <strong>dereference operator</strong> <code>*</code> does the reverse. given a pointer, it reaches through the stored address to read or write the value sitting there, as in <code>*h = 20</code>, which leaves <code>h</code> itself pointing at the same place but changes the int at that address. The symbol <code>*</code> means two different things depending on where it appears. in a declaration, <code>int* h</code>, it says "h is a pointer to an int". in an expression, <code>*h = 20</code>, it means "the int that h points to".</p>

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<p>Telling the two apart in source code has nothing to do with a variable's type and everything to do with how it is declared. A declaration that includes <code>new</code> somewhere in it, such as <code>Person* peter = new Person();</code>, puts the object on the heap, even though <code>peter</code> itself, the pointer holding that object's address, lives on the stack like any other local variable. A declaration with no <code>new</code> anywhere in it, such as <code>Person stackPerson;</code>, puts the entire object on the stack, with no separate heap request involved at all. A pointer type such as <code>Person*</code> is not by itself evidence of heap allocation, it only means the variable holds an address. the only thing that determines where the pointee lives is whether <code>new</code> produced that address.</p>

<p>Knowing how to tell stack and heap apart still leaves the practical question. given a free choice, why put something on the heap at all instead of just declaring it on the stack? Three situations force the choice. the first is <strong>size</strong>. the stack is a small, fixed block of memory, often only a few megabytes for an entire thread, so a large array declared directly on the stack, such as <code>Person team[1000];</code>, can exhaust it outright and crash the program with a <strong>stack overflow</strong> before a single line of useful work runs. The heap is far larger, limited mainly by how much memory the machine actually has, so a large array or a large number of objects, a level's worth of enemies in a game, belongs there instead, built with <code>new Person[1000]</code>. the second is <strong>lifetime</strong>. a stack object is destroyed the instant its function returns, so a function that needs to hand an object back to whoever called it, or store it somewhere that outlives the function entirely, such as inside a container owned by a different object, cannot return a pointer to a local stack variable. that pointer would point at memory that no longer belongs to anything the moment the function returns, a <strong>dangling pointer</strong>. only a heap allocation survives past the function that created it. the third is <strong>size unknown until the program is already running</strong>. a plain stack array's size has to be fixed before the program runs, but the number of enemies to spawn, or the number of lines read from a file, is usually only known once the program is already executing, and only <code>new</code> can request exactly that many elements at runtime.</p>

<p>The tool for requesting heap memory is the <code>new</code> keyword, which returns a <strong>pointer</strong>, an address, to the memory it reserved. Whoever holds that pointer is responsible for calling <code>delete</code> on it exactly once, and every single <code>new</code> in a program needs exactly one matching <code>delete</code> somewhere, no more and no fewer. forget it and the memory is never released, a <strong>memory leak</strong>. A leak rarely causes any visible problem right away, since the operating system reclaims all of a process's memory the moment it exits anyway, so a short console program that leaks once and then exits can look perfectly fine. The real damage shows up in a long-running program, such as a game that allocates a new object every frame without a matching <code>delete</code>, where each leaked allocation stays reserved for the rest of the run and the total leaked memory keeps growing the longer the program runs, eventually exhausting available memory and causing an allocation to fail or the process to be killed. Because a leak produces no compiler error and no immediate crash, treat every <code>new</code> as unfinished business until its matching <code>delete</code> exists somewhere in the code. A class's <strong>destructor</strong>, written as <code>~ClassName()</code>, is where that matching <code>delete</code> usually belongs, since it runs automatically no matter where the object holding it was allocated.</p>
  </section>

  <section class="lab-section">
    <h2>Tasks</h2>

    <div class="task-block">
      <h3>Task 1 - Compare a stack address to a heap address</h3>
      
<p>Open <code>StackVsHeap.cpp</code>. It already allocates one <code>int</code> and one <code>Person</code> on the heap through the pointers <code>h</code> and <code>peter</code>. Add a stack-allocated version of each directly alongside them, then print all four addresses so you can compare a stack address to a heap address in the same run.</p>
<ol>
  <li>Declare a stack-allocated <code>int</code> called <code>stackInt</code>, initialised to <code>20</code>, using plain <code>int stackInt = 20;</code>. no <code>new</code>, no pointer.</li>
  <li>Declare a stack-allocated <code>Person</code> called <code>stackPerson</code>, using plain <code>Person stackPerson;</code>. again, no <code>new</code>, no pointer.</li>
  <li>Print the address of <code>stackInt</code> with <code>std::cout &lt;&lt; &amp;stackInt</code>, and the address of <code>stackPerson</code> with <code>std::cout &lt;&lt; &amp;stackPerson</code>, following the same pattern used below for <code>h</code> and <code>peter</code>.</li>
</ol>
<p>The diagram below shows where each variable ends up once your two new lines are in place. <code>h</code> and <code>peter</code> stay on the stack as pointers, but the memory they point to is on the heap. <code>stackInt</code> and <code>stackPerson</code> are the two variables you are adding, and both live entirely on the stack, no arrow leaves the stack box for either of them.</p>


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    const container = document.getElementById('viz-stack-vs-heap-layout');
    
const w = container.clientWidth || 600, h = 440;
const svg = d3.select(container).append('svg').attr('width', w).attr('height', h);

svg.append('defs').append('marker')
  .attr('id', 'svh-arrow').attr('markerWidth', 8).attr('markerHeight', 6)
  .attr('refX', 8).attr('refY', 3).attr('orient', 'auto')
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const navy = '#003366', gold = '#C8A951';
const stackX = 30, stackW = Math.min(220, w * 0.35);
const heapX = w - stackW - 30 < stackX + stackW + 140 ? stackX + stackW + 140 : w - stackW - 30;
const heapW = stackW;

svg.append('text').attr('x', stackX).attr('y', 22).attr('font-size', 14).attr('font-weight', 700).attr('fill', navy).text('STACK (main)');
svg.append('text').attr('x', heapX).attr('y', 22).attr('font-size', 14).attr('font-weight', 700).attr('fill', navy).text('HEAP');

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const rowH = 80;
const stackRows = [
  { label: 'stackInt', detail: '= 20', pointsToHeap: false },
  { label: 'stackPerson', detail: 'Person object', pointsToHeap: false },
  { label: 'h', detail: 'pointer', pointsToHeap: true },
  { label: 'peter', detail: 'pointer', pointsToHeap: true },
];

const heapRows = [
  { label: 'int', detail: '= 20' },
  { label: 'Person object', detail: "age -> heap int" },
];

stackRows.forEach((row, i) => {
  const y = 55 + i * rowH;
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});

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];

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</div>

<div class="code-file-header">StackVsHeap.cpp</div>
<pre style="border-radius:0 0 6px 6px;margin-top:0"><code class="language-cpp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
#include &quot;Person.h&quot;

int main()
{
    // Heap allocation: h itself is a stack variable, but new int reserves
    // space on the heap and returns its address.
    int* h = new int;
    *h = 20;

    // Heap allocation: peter is a stack variable holding the address of a
    // Person object that was constructed on the heap.
    Person* peter = new Person();

    // TODO: declare a stack-allocated int called stackInt, initialised to 20

    // TODO: declare a stack-allocated Person called stackPerson

    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;heap int address (h):        &quot; &lt;&lt; h &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;heap Person address (peter): &quot; &lt;&lt; peter &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    // TODO: print the address of stackInt with std::cout &lt;&lt; &amp;stackInt
    // TODO: print the address of stackPerson with std::cout &lt;&lt; &amp;stackPerson

    delete h;
    delete peter;
}</code></pre>

<p><strong>Success condition:</strong> the program compiles and prints four addresses. the two stack addresses (<code>stackInt</code>, <code>stackPerson</code>) are close together and clearly separated from the two heap addresses (<code>h</code>, <code>peter</code>), matching the diagram above.</p>
    </div>

    <div class="task-block">
      <h3>Task 2 - Watch construction and destruction happen</h3>
      
<p>Printing addresses shows <em>where</em> each object lives, but not <em>when</em> it is created or destroyed. Open <code>Person.cpp</code> and add a print statement to the constructor and another to the destructor, so you can watch both events happen as the program runs.</p>
<ol>
  <li>In <code>Person::Person()</code>, after <code>age</code> is allocated and set, print <code>"Person constructed at "</code> followed by <code>this</code>.</li>
  <li>In <code>Person::~Person()</code>, before <code>age</code> is freed, print <code>"Person destroyed at "</code> followed by <code>this</code>.</li>
  <li>Rebuild and run the program from Task 1 again.</li>
</ol>


<div class="code-file-header">Person.cpp</div>
<pre style="border-radius:0 0 6px 6px;margin-top:0"><code class="language-cpp">#include &quot;Person.h&quot;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;

Person::Person()
{
    this-&gt;age = new int;
    *this-&gt;age = 5;

    // TODO: print &quot;Person constructed at &quot; followed by this
}

Person::~Person()
{
    // TODO: print &quot;Person destroyed at &quot; followed by this

    delete this-&gt;age;
}</code></pre>

<p><strong>Success condition:</strong> the run now prints two <code>Person constructed</code> lines near the top, one for <code>peter</code> and one for <code>stackPerson</code>, in the order they are declared in <code>main()</code>. It then prints two <code>Person destroyed</code> lines, but not in the same order they were constructed. the line for <code>peter</code> prints exactly where <code>delete peter;</code> runs, while the line for <code>stackPerson</code> prints last, automatically, after <code>main()</code>'s closing brace, even though <code>stackPerson</code> is never passed to <code>delete</code> anywhere in the file.</p>
    </div>

    <div class="task-block">
      <h3>Task 3 - Find and fix the missing delete</h3>
      
<p>The version of <code>StackVsHeap.cpp</code> below was checked in by a teammate who was refactoring the file from Task 1 and Task 2. Build and run it as it stands.</p>
<p>Two <code>Person constructed</code> lines print as expected, but only one <code>Person destroyed</code> line ever appears, for <code>stackPerson</code>. The program still exits normally. no crash, no error message. <code>peter</code>'s object is constructed, printed, and then simply never reported as destroyed.</p>
<ol>
  <li>Compare this file line by line against the version you built in Task 1 and Task 2.</li>
  <li>Find what your teammate's refactor left out, and add it back in the right place.</li>
</ol>


<div class="code-file-header">StackVsHeap.cpp</div>
<pre style="border-radius:0 0 6px 6px;margin-top:0"><code class="language-cpp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
#include &quot;Person.h&quot;

int main()
{
    int* h = new int;
    *h = 20;

    Person* peter = new Person();

    int stackInt = 20;
    Person stackPerson;

    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;heap int address (h):        &quot; &lt;&lt; h &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;heap Person address (peter): &quot; &lt;&lt; peter &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;stack int address:           &quot; &lt;&lt; &amp;stackInt &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;stack Person address:        &quot; &lt;&lt; &amp;stackPerson &lt;&lt; std::endl;

    delete h;
}</code></pre>

<p><strong>Success condition:</strong> after your fix, the run once again prints two <code>Person destroyed</code> lines, in the order established in Task 2, one for <code>peter</code> exactly where its <code>delete</code> runs, and one for <code>stackPerson</code> automatically after that.</p>
    </div>

  </section>

  <section class="lab-section worked-solution">
    <h2>Solution</h2>
    <p>Try the tasks above before revealing the solution.</p>
    <button class="solution-btn" onclick="toggleSolution(this)">Show Solution</button>
    <div class="solution-panel">
      <div class="solution-canvas-wrap"><canvas data-code="#include &lt;iostream&gt;
#include &quot;Person.h&quot;

int main()
{
    // Heap allocation: h itself is a stack variable, but new int reserves
    // space on the heap and returns its address.
    int* h = new int;
    *h = 20;

    // Heap allocation: peter is a stack variable holding the address of a
    // Person object that was constructed on the heap.
    Person* peter = new Person();

    // Stack allocation: both of these live directly on the stack, with no
    // separate heap request for the variable itself.
    int stackInt = 20;
    Person stackPerson;

    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;heap int address (h):        &quot; &lt;&lt; h &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;heap Person address (peter): &quot; &lt;&lt; peter &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;stack int address:            &quot; &lt;&lt; &amp;stackInt &lt;&lt; std::endl;
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;stack Person address:         &quot; &lt;&lt; &amp;stackPerson &lt;&lt; std::endl;

    // Every heap allocation above must be matched by exactly one delete.
    delete h;
    delete peter;

    // stackInt and stackPerson need no delete. they are destroyed
    // automatically when main() returns, in reverse order of declaration.
}" data-filename="StackVsHeap.cpp" style="display:block;border-radius:6px"></canvas></div>
      <div class="solution-canvas-wrap"><canvas data-code="#pragma once

// Person - a minimal class used to demonstrate heap allocation happening
// INSIDE a class, on top of whatever allocation holds the object itself.
class Person
{
private:
    // age is a pointer. the pointer variable itself lives wherever the
    // Person object lives (stack or heap), but the memory it points to is
    // always requested from the heap, inside the constructor below.
    int* age;

public:
    Person();
    virtual ~Person();
};" data-filename="Person.h" style="display:block;border-radius:6px"></canvas></div>
      <div class="solution-canvas-wrap"><canvas data-code="#include &quot;Person.h&quot;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;

Person::Person()
{
    // This heap allocation happens no matter where the Person object
    // itself lives. stack vs heap is a property of each allocation, not of
    // the class.
    this-&gt;age = new int;
    *this-&gt;age = 5;

    // Prints as soon as the object exists, whether that is a plain
    // declaration on the stack or the moment after new Person() completes.
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Person constructed at &quot; &lt;&lt; this &lt;&lt; std::endl;
}

Person::~Person()
{
    // Prints before age is released, whether this destructor was called
    // automatically at scope end or explicitly through delete.
    std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Person destroyed at &quot; &lt;&lt; this &lt;&lt; std::endl;

    delete this-&gt;age;
}" data-filename="Person.cpp" style="display:block;border-radius:6px"></canvas></div>
    </div>
  </section>
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e={value:null,prev:null,next:null},t={value:null,prev:e,next:null};e.next=t,this.head=e,this.tail=t,this.length=0}function u(e,t,n){var a=t.next,r={value:n,prev:t,next:a};return t.next=r,a.prev=r,e.length++,r}function g(e,t,n){for(var a=t.next,r=0;r<n&&a!==e.tail;r++)a=a.next;t.next=a,a.prev=t,e.length-=r}if(e.Prism=r,s.stringify=function e(t,n){if("string"==typeof t)return t;if(Array.isArray(t)){var a="";return t.forEach((function(t){a+=e(t,n)})),a}var s={type:t.type,content:e(t.content,n),tag:"span",classes:["token",t.type],attributes:{},language:n},i=t.alias;i&&(Array.isArray(i)?Array.prototype.push.apply(s.classes,i):s.classes.push(i)),r.hooks.run("wrap",s);var o="";for(var l in s.attributes)o+=" "+l+'="'+(s.attributes[l]||"").replace(/"/g,"&quot;")+'"';return"<"+s.tag+' class="'+s.classes.join(" ")+'"'+o+">"+s.content+"</"+s.tag+">"},!e.document)return e.addEventListener?(r.disableWorkerMessageHandler||e.addEventListener("message",(function(t){var 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/**
 * Prism: Lightweight, robust, elegant syntax highlighting
 *
 * @license MIT <https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT>
 * @author Lea Verou <https://lea.verou.me>
 * @namespace
 * @public
 */"undefined"!=typeof module&&module.exports&&(module.exports=Prism),"undefined"!=typeof global&&(global.Prism=Prism),Prism.languages.markup={comment:{pattern:/<!--(?:(?!<!--)[\s\S])*?-->/,greedy:!0},prolog:{pattern:/<\?[\s\S]+?\?>/,greedy:!0},doctype:{pattern:/<!DOCTYPE(?:[^>"'[\]]|"[^"]*"|'[^']*')+(?:\[(?:[^<"'\]]|"[^"]*"|'[^']*'|<(?!!--)|<!--(?:[^-]|-(?!->))*-->)*\]\s*)?>/i,greedy:!0,inside:{"internal-subset":{pattern:/(^[^\[]*\[)[\s\S]+(?=\]>$)/,lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0,inside:null},string:{pattern:/"[^"]*"|'[^']*'/,greedy:!0},punctuation:/^<!|>$|[[\]]/,"doctype-tag":/^DOCTYPE/i,name:/[^\s<>'"]+/}},cdata:{pattern:/<!\[CDATA\[[\s\S]*?\]\]>/i,greedy:!0},tag:{pattern:/<\/?(?!\d)[^\s>\/=$<%]+(?:\s(?:\s*[^\s>\/=]+(?:\s*=\s*(?:"[^"]*"|'[^']*'|[^\s'">=]+(?=[\s>]))|(?=[\s/>])))+)?\s*\/?>/,greedy:!0,inside:{tag:{pattern:/^<\/?[^\s>\/]+/,inside:{punctuation:/^<\/?/,namespace:/^[^\s>\/:]+:/}},"special-attr":[],"attr-value":{pattern:/=\s*(?:"[^"]*"|'[^']*'|[^\s'">=]+)/,inside:{punctuation:[{pattern:/^=/,alias:"attr-equals"},{pattern:/^(\s*)["']|["']$/,lookbehind:!0}]}},punctuation:/\/?>/,"attr-name":{pattern:/[^\s>\/]+/,inside:{namespace:/^[^\s>\/:]+:/}}}},entity:[{pattern:/&[\da-z]{1,8};/i,alias:"named-entity"},/&#x?[\da-f]{1,8};/i]},Prism.languages.markup.tag.inside["attr-value"].inside.entity=Prism.languages.markup.entity,Prism.languages.markup.doctype.inside["internal-subset"].inside=Prism.languages.markup,Prism.hooks.add("wrap",(function(e){"entity"===e.type&&(e.attributes.title=e.content.replace(/&amp;/,"&"))})),Object.defineProperty(Prism.languages.markup.tag,"addInlined",{value:function(e,t){var n={};n["language-"+t]={pattern:/(^<!\[CDATA\[)[\s\S]+?(?=\]\]>$)/i,lookbehind:!0,inside:Prism.languages[t]},n.cdata=/^<!\[CDATA\[|\]\]>$/i;var a={"included-cdata":{pattern:/<!\[CDATA\[[\s\S]*?\]\]>/i,inside:n}};a["language-"+t]={pattern:/[\s\S]+/,inside:Prism.languages[t]};var r={};r[e]={pattern:RegExp(/(<__[^>]*>)(?:<!\[CDATA\[(?:[^\]]|\](?!\]>))*\]\]>|(?!<!\[CDATA\[)[\s\S])*?(?=<\/__>)/.source.replace(/__/g,(function(){return e})),"i"),lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0,inside:a},Prism.languages.insertBefore("markup","cdata",r)}}),Object.defineProperty(Prism.languages.markup.tag,"addAttribute",{value:function(e,t){Prism.languages.markup.tag.inside["special-attr"].push({pattern:RegExp(/(^|["'\s])/.source+"(?:"+e+")"+/\s*=\s*(?:"[^"]*"|'[^']*'|[^\s'">=]+(?=[\s>]))/.source,"i"),lookbehind:!0,inside:{"attr-name":/^[^\s=]+/,"attr-value":{pattern:/=[\s\S]+/,inside:{value:{pattern:/(^=\s*(["']|(?!["'])))\S[\s\S]*(?=\2$)/,lookbehind:!0,alias:[t,"language-"+t],inside:Prism.languages[t]},punctuation:[{pattern:/^=/,alias:"attr-equals"},/"|'/]}}}})}}),Prism.languages.html=Prism.languages.markup,Prism.languages.mathml=Prism.languages.markup,Prism.languages.svg=Prism.languages.markup,Prism.languages.xml=Prism.languages.extend("markup",{}),Prism.languages.ssml=Prism.languages.xml,Prism.languages.atom=Prism.languages.xml,Prism.languages.rss=Prism.languages.xml,function(e){var t=/(?:"(?:\\(?:\r\n|[\s\S])|[^"\\\r\n])*"|'(?:\\(?:\r\n|[\s\S])|[^'\\\r\n])*')/;e.languages.css={comment:/\/\*[\s\S]*?\*\//,atrule:{pattern:RegExp("@[\\w-](?:"+/[^;{\s"']|\s+(?!\s)/.source+"|"+t.source+")*?"+/(?:;|(?=\s*\{))/.source),inside:{rule:/^@[\w-]+/,"selector-function-argument":{pattern:/(\bselector\s*\(\s*(?![\s)]))(?:[^()\s]|\s+(?![\s)])|\((?:[^()]|\([^()]*\))*\))+(?=\s*\))/,lookbehind:!0,alias:"selector"},keyword:{pattern:/(^|[^\w-])(?:and|not|only|or)(?![\w-])/,lookbehind:!0}}},url:{pattern:RegExp("\\burl\\((?:"+t.source+"|"+/(?:[^\\\r\n()"']|\\[\s\S])*/.source+")\\)","i"),greedy:!0,inside:{function:/^url/i,punctuation:/^\(|\)$/,string:{pattern:RegExp("^"+t.source+"$"),alias:"url"}}},selector:{pattern:RegExp("(^|[{}\\s])[^{}\\s](?:[^{};\"'\\s]|\\s+(?![\\s{])|"+t.source+")*(?=\\s*\\{)"),lookbehind:!0},string:{pattern:t,greedy:!0},property:{pattern:/(^|[^-\w\xA0-\uFFFF])(?!\s)[-_a-z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[-\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*(?=\s*:)/i,lookbehind:!0},important:/!important\b/i,function:{pattern:/(^|[^-a-z0-9])[-a-z0-9]+(?=\()/i,lookbehind:!0},punctuation:/[(){};:,]/},e.languages.css.atrule.inside.rest=e.languages.css;var n=e.languages.markup;n&&(n.tag.addInlined("style","css"),n.tag.addAttribute("style","css"))}(Prism),Prism.languages.clike={comment:[{pattern:/(^|[^\\])\/\*[\s\S]*?(?:\*\/|$)/,lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0},{pattern:/(^|[^\\:])\/\/.*/,lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0}],string:{pattern:/(["'])(?:\\(?:\r\n|[\s\S])|(?!\1)[^\\\r\n])*\1/,greedy:!0},"class-name":{pattern:/(\b(?:class|extends|implements|instanceof|interface|new|trait)\s+|\bcatch\s+\()[\w.\\]+/i,lookbehind:!0,inside:{punctuation:/[.\\]/}},keyword:/\b(?:break|catch|continue|do|else|finally|for|function|if|in|instanceof|new|null|return|throw|try|while)\b/,boolean:/\b(?:false|true)\b/,function:/\b\w+(?=\()/,number:/\b0x[\da-f]+\b|(?:\b\d+(?:\.\d*)?|\B\.\d+)(?:e[+-]?\d+)?/i,operator:/[<>]=?|[!=]=?=?|--?|\+\+?|&&?|\|\|?|[?*/~^%]/,punctuation:/[{}[\];(),.:]/},Prism.languages.javascript=Prism.languages.extend("clike",{"class-name":[Prism.languages.clike["class-name"],{pattern:/(^|[^$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])(?!\s)[_$A-Z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*(?=\.(?:constructor|prototype))/,lookbehind:!0}],keyword:[{pattern:/((?:^|\})\s*)catch\b/,lookbehind:!0},{pattern:/(^|[^.]|\.\.\.\s*)\b(?:as|assert(?=\s*\{)|async(?=\s*(?:function\b|\(|[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF]|$))|await|break|case|class|const|continue|debugger|default|delete|do|else|enum|export|extends|finally(?=\s*(?:\{|$))|for|from(?=\s*(?:['"]|$))|function|(?:get|set)(?=\s*(?:[#\[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF]|$))|if|implements|import|in|instanceof|interface|let|new|null|of|package|private|protected|public|return|static|super|switch|this|throw|try|typeof|undefined|var|void|while|with|yield)\b/,lookbehind:!0}],function:/#?(?!\s)[_$a-zA-Z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*(?=\s*(?:\.\s*(?:apply|bind|call)\s*)?\()/,number:{pattern:RegExp(/(^|[^\w$])/.source+"(?:"+/NaN|Infinity/.source+"|"+/0[bB][01]+(?:_[01]+)*n?/.source+"|"+/0[oO][0-7]+(?:_[0-7]+)*n?/.source+"|"+/0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+(?:_[\dA-Fa-f]+)*n?/.source+"|"+/\d+(?:_\d+)*n/.source+"|"+/(?:\d+(?:_\d+)*(?:\.(?:\d+(?:_\d+)*)?)?|\.\d+(?:_\d+)*)(?:[Ee][+-]?\d+(?:_\d+)*)?/.source+")"+/(?![\w$])/.source),lookbehind:!0},operator:/--|\+\+|\*\*=?|=>|&&=?|\|\|=?|[!=]==|<<=?|>>>?=?|[-+*/%&|^!=<>]=?|\.{3}|\?\?=?|\?\.?|[~:]/}),Prism.languages.javascript["class-name"][0].pattern=/(\b(?:class|extends|implements|instanceof|interface|new)\s+)[\w.\\]+/,Prism.languages.insertBefore("javascript","keyword",{regex:{pattern:RegExp(/((?:^|[^$\w\xA0-\uFFFF."'\])\s]|\b(?:return|yield))\s*)/.source+/\//.source+"(?:"+/(?:\[(?:[^\]\\\r\n]|\\.)*\]|\\.|[^/\\\[\r\n])+\/[dgimyus]{0,7}/.source+"|"+/(?:\[(?:[^[\]\\\r\n]|\\.|\[(?:[^[\]\\\r\n]|\\.|\[(?:[^[\]\\\r\n]|\\.)*\])*\])*\]|\\.|[^/\\\[\r\n])+\/[dgimyus]{0,7}v[dgimyus]{0,7}/.source+")"+/(?=(?:\s|\/\*(?:[^*]|\*(?!\/))*\*\/)*(?:$|[\r\n,.;:})\]]|\/\/))/.source),lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0,inside:{"regex-source":{pattern:/^(\/)[\s\S]+(?=\/[a-z]*$)/,lookbehind:!0,alias:"language-regex",inside:Prism.languages.regex},"regex-delimiter":/^\/|\/$/,"regex-flags":/^[a-z]+$/}},"function-variable":{pattern:/#?(?!\s)[_$a-zA-Z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*(?=\s*[=:]\s*(?:async\s*)?(?:\bfunction\b|(?:\((?:[^()]|\([^()]*\))*\)|(?!\s)[_$a-zA-Z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*)\s*=>))/,alias:"function"},parameter:[{pattern:/(function(?:\s+(?!\s)[_$a-zA-Z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*)?\s*\(\s*)(?!\s)(?:[^()\s]|\s+(?![\s)])|\([^()]*\))+(?=\s*\))/,lookbehind:!0,inside:Prism.languages.javascript},{pattern:/(^|[^$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])(?!\s)[_$a-z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*(?=\s*=>)/i,lookbehind:!0,inside:Prism.languages.javascript},{pattern:/(\(\s*)(?!\s)(?:[^()\s]|\s+(?![\s)])|\([^()]*\))+(?=\s*\)\s*=>)/,lookbehind:!0,inside:Prism.languages.javascript},{pattern:/((?:\b|\s|^)(?!(?:as|async|await|break|case|catch|class|const|continue|debugger|default|delete|do|else|enum|export|extends|finally|for|from|function|get|if|implements|import|in|instanceof|interface|let|new|null|of|package|private|protected|public|return|set|static|super|switch|this|throw|try|typeof|undefined|var|void|while|with|yield)(?![$\w\xA0-\uFFFF]))(?:(?!\s)[_$a-zA-Z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*\s*)\(\s*|\]\s*\(\s*)(?!\s)(?:[^()\s]|\s+(?![\s)])|\([^()]*\))+(?=\s*\)\s*\{)/,lookbehind:!0,inside:Prism.languages.javascript}],constant:/\b[A-Z](?:[A-Z_]|\dx?)*\b/}),Prism.languages.insertBefore("javascript","string",{hashbang:{pattern:/^#!.*/,greedy:!0,alias:"comment"},"template-string":{pattern:/`(?:\\[\s\S]|\$\{(?:[^{}]|\{(?:[^{}]|\{[^}]*\})*\})+\}|(?!\$\{)[^\\`])*`/,greedy:!0,inside:{"template-punctuation":{pattern:/^`|`$/,alias:"string"},interpolation:{pattern:/((?:^|[^\\])(?:\\{2})*)\$\{(?:[^{}]|\{(?:[^{}]|\{[^}]*\})*\})+\}/,lookbehind:!0,inside:{"interpolation-punctuation":{pattern:/^\$\{|\}$/,alias:"punctuation"},rest:Prism.languages.javascript}},string:/[\s\S]+/}},"string-property":{pattern:/((?:^|[,{])[ \t]*)(["'])(?:\\(?:\r\n|[\s\S])|(?!\2)[^\\\r\n])*\2(?=\s*:)/m,lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0,alias:"property"}}),Prism.languages.insertBefore("javascript","operator",{"literal-property":{pattern:/((?:^|[,{])[ \t]*)(?!\s)[_$a-zA-Z\xA0-\uFFFF](?:(?!\s)[$\w\xA0-\uFFFF])*(?=\s*:)/m,lookbehind:!0,alias:"property"}}),Prism.languages.markup&&(Prism.languages.markup.tag.addInlined("script","javascript"),Prism.languages.markup.tag.addAttribute(/on(?:abort|blur|change|click|composition(?:end|start|update)|dblclick|error|focus(?:in|out)?|key(?:down|up)|load|mouse(?:down|enter|leave|move|out|over|up)|reset|resize|scroll|select|slotchange|submit|unload|wheel)/.source,"javascript")),Prism.languages.js=Prism.languages.javascript,function(){if(void 0!==Prism&&"undefined"!=typeof document){Element.prototype.matches||(Element.prototype.matches=Element.prototype.msMatchesSelector||Element.prototype.webkitMatchesSelector);var e={js:"javascript",py:"python",rb:"ruby",ps1:"powershell",psm1:"powershell",sh:"bash",bat:"batch",h:"c",tex:"latex"},t="data-src-status",n="loading",a="loaded",r="pre[data-src]:not(["+t+'="'+a+'"]):not(['+t+'="'+n+'"])';Prism.hooks.add("before-highlightall",(function(e){e.selector+=", "+r})),Prism.hooks.add("before-sanity-check",(function(s){var i=s.element;if(i.matches(r)){s.code="",i.setAttribute(t,n);var o=i.appendChild(document.createElement("CODE"));o.textContent="Loading…";var l=i.getAttribute("data-src"),u=s.language;if("none"===u){var g=(/\.(\w+)$/.exec(l)||[,"none"])[1];u=e[g]||g}Prism.util.setLanguage(o,u),Prism.util.setLanguage(i,u);var c=Prism.plugins.autoloader;c&&c.loadLanguages(u),function(e,t,n){var a=new XMLHttpRequest;a.open("GET",e,!0),a.onreadystatechange=function(){4==a.readyState&&(a.status<400&&a.responseText?t(a.responseText):a.status>=400?n("✖ Error "+a.status+" while fetching file: "+a.statusText):n("✖ Error: File does not exist or is empty"))},a.send(null)}(l,(function(e){i.setAttribute(t,a);var n=function(e){var t=/^\s*(\d+)\s*(?:(,)\s*(?:(\d+)\s*)?)?$/.exec(e||"");if(t){var n=Number(t[1]),a=t[2],r=t[3];return a?r?[n,Number(r)]:[n,void 0]:[n,n]}}(i.getAttribute("data-range"));if(n){var r=e.split(/\r\n?|\n/g),s=n[0],l=null==n[1]?r.length:n[1];s<0&&(s+=r.length),s=Math.max(0,Math.min(s-1,r.length)),l<0&&(l+=r.length),l=Math.max(0,Math.min(l,r.length)),e=r.slice(s,l).join("\n"),i.hasAttribute("data-start")||i.setAttribute("data-start",String(s+1))}o.textContent=e,Prism.highlightElement(o)}),(function(e){i.setAttribute(t,"failed"),o.textContent=e}))}})),Prism.plugins.fileHighlight={highlight:function(e){for(var t,n=(e||document).querySelectorAll(r),a=0;t=n[a++];)Prism.highlightElement(t)}};var s=!1;Prism.fileHighlight=function(){s||(console.warn("Prism.fileHighlight is deprecated. Use `Prism.plugins.fileHighlight.highlight` instead."),s=!0),Prism.plugins.fileHighlight.highlight.apply(this,arguments)}}}();
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Prism.languages.c=Prism.languages.extend("clike",{comment:{pattern:/\/\/(?:[^\r\n\\]|\\(?:\r\n?|\n|(?![\r\n])))*|\/\*[\s\S]*?(?:\*\/|$)/,greedy:!0},string:{pattern:/"(?:\\(?:\r\n|[\s\S])|[^"\\\r\n])*"/,greedy:!0},"class-name":{pattern:/(\b(?:enum|struct)\s+(?:__attribute__\s*\(\([\s\S]*?\)\)\s*)?)\w+|\b[a-z]\w*_t\b/,lookbehind:!0},keyword:/\b(?:_Alignas|_Alignof|_Atomic|_Bool|_Complex|_Generic|_Imaginary|_Noreturn|_Static_assert|_Thread_local|__attribute__|asm|auto|break|case|char|const|continue|default|do|double|else|enum|extern|float|for|goto|if|inline|int|long|register|return|short|signed|sizeof|static|struct|switch|typedef|typeof|union|unsigned|void|volatile|while)\b/,function:/\b[a-z_]\w*(?=\s*\()/i,number:/(?:\b0x(?:[\da-f]+(?:\.[\da-f]*)?|\.[\da-f]+)(?:p[+-]?\d+)?|(?:\b\d+(?:\.\d*)?|\B\.\d+)(?:e[+-]?\d+)?)[ful]{0,4}/i,operator:/>>=?|<<=?|->|([-+&|:])\1|[?:~]|[-+*/%&|^!=<>]=?/}),Prism.languages.insertBefore("c","string",{char:{pattern:/'(?:\\(?:\r\n|[\s\S])|[^'\\\r\n]){0,32}'/,greedy:!0}}),Prism.languages.insertBefore("c","string",{macro:{pattern:/(^[\t ]*)#\s*[a-z](?:[^\r\n\\/]|\/(?!\*)|\/\*(?:[^*]|\*(?!\/))*\*\/|\\(?:\r\n|[\s\S]))*/im,lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0,alias:"property",inside:{string:[{pattern:/^(#\s*include\s*)<[^>]+>/,lookbehind:!0},Prism.languages.c.string],char:Prism.languages.c.char,comment:Prism.languages.c.comment,"macro-name":[{pattern:/(^#\s*define\s+)\w+\b(?!\()/i,lookbehind:!0},{pattern:/(^#\s*define\s+)\w+\b(?=\()/i,lookbehind:!0,alias:"function"}],directive:{pattern:/^(#\s*)[a-z]+/,lookbehind:!0,alias:"keyword"},"directive-hash":/^#/,punctuation:/##|\\(?=[\r\n])/,expression:{pattern:/\S[\s\S]*/,inside:Prism.languages.c}}}}),Prism.languages.insertBefore("c","function",{constant:/\b(?:EOF|NULL|SEEK_CUR|SEEK_END|SEEK_SET|__DATE__|__FILE__|__LINE__|__TIMESTAMP__|__TIME__|__func__|stderr|stdin|stdout)\b/}),delete Prism.languages.c.boolean;
!function(e){var t=/\b(?:alignas|alignof|asm|auto|bool|break|case|catch|char|char16_t|char32_t|char8_t|class|co_await|co_return|co_yield|compl|concept|const|const_cast|consteval|constexpr|constinit|continue|decltype|default|delete|do|double|dynamic_cast|else|enum|explicit|export|extern|final|float|for|friend|goto|if|import|inline|int|int16_t|int32_t|int64_t|int8_t|long|module|mutable|namespace|new|noexcept|nullptr|operator|override|private|protected|public|register|reinterpret_cast|requires|return|short|signed|sizeof|static|static_assert|static_cast|struct|switch|template|this|thread_local|throw|try|typedef|typeid|typename|uint16_t|uint32_t|uint64_t|uint8_t|union|unsigned|using|virtual|void|volatile|wchar_t|while)\b/,n="\\b(?!<keyword>)\\w+(?:\\s*\\.\\s*\\w+)*\\b".replace(/<keyword>/g,(function(){return t.source}));e.languages.cpp=e.languages.extend("c",{"class-name":[{pattern:RegExp("(\\b(?:class|concept|enum|struct|typename)\\s+)(?!<keyword>)\\w+".replace(/<keyword>/g,(function(){return t.source}))),lookbehind:!0},/\b[A-Z]\w*(?=\s*::\s*\w+\s*\()/,/\b[A-Z_]\w*(?=\s*::\s*~\w+\s*\()/i,/\b\w+(?=\s*<(?:[^<>]|<(?:[^<>]|<[^<>]*>)*>)*>\s*::\s*\w+\s*\()/],keyword:t,number:{pattern:/(?:\b0b[01']+|\b0x(?:[\da-f']+(?:\.[\da-f']*)?|\.[\da-f']+)(?:p[+-]?[\d']+)?|(?:\b[\d']+(?:\.[\d']*)?|\B\.[\d']+)(?:e[+-]?[\d']+)?)[ful]{0,4}/i,greedy:!0},operator:/>>=?|<<=?|->|--|\+\+|&&|\|\||[?:~]|<=>|[-+*/%&|^!=<>]=?|\b(?:and|and_eq|bitand|bitor|not|not_eq|or|or_eq|xor|xor_eq)\b/,boolean:/\b(?:false|true)\b/}),e.languages.insertBefore("cpp","string",{module:{pattern:RegExp('(\\b(?:import|module)\\s+)(?:"(?:\\\\(?:\r\n|[^])|[^"\\\\\r\n])*"|<[^<>\r\n]*>|'+"<mod-name>(?:\\s*:\\s*<mod-name>)?|:\\s*<mod-name>".replace(/<mod-name>/g,(function(){return n}))+")"),lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0,inside:{string:/^[<"][\s\S]+/,operator:/:/,punctuation:/\./}},"raw-string":{pattern:/R"([^()\\ ]{0,16})\([\s\S]*?\)\1"/,alias:"string",greedy:!0}}),e.languages.insertBefore("cpp","keyword",{"generic-function":{pattern:/\b(?!operator\b)[a-z_]\w*\s*<(?:[^<>]|<[^<>]*>)*>(?=\s*\()/i,inside:{function:/^\w+/,generic:{pattern:/<[\s\S]+/,alias:"class-name",inside:e.languages.cpp}}}}),e.languages.insertBefore("cpp","operator",{"double-colon":{pattern:/::/,alias:"punctuation"}}),e.languages.insertBefore("cpp","class-name",{"base-clause":{pattern:/(\b(?:class|struct)\s+\w+\s*:\s*)[^;{}"'\s]+(?:\s+[^;{}"'\s]+)*(?=\s*[;{])/,lookbehind:!0,greedy:!0,inside:e.languages.extend("cpp",{})}}),e.languages.insertBefore("inside","double-colon",{"class-name":/\b[a-z_]\w*\b(?!\s*::)/i},e.languages.cpp["base-clause"])}(Prism);</script>

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